History of Economic Thought. History of Economics - Summary History of Economics tree
History of economic doctrines: Proc. allowance for university students
V.S. Avtonomov, O.I. Ananin, N.A. Makasheva and others.
Preface 3
Introduction 5
Development of economic thought: historical context 7
Section I FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE FIRST SCHOOLS 11
CHAPTER 1 THE WORLD OF THE ECONOMY IN THE MIND OF THE PRE-CAPITALIST AGES
1. WHAT IS ECONOMY?
2. ECONOMY AND CHREMATISTICS
3. ECONOMY IN RELIGIOUS WORLD PERCEPTION
Wealth
fair price
The sin of usury
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 2 CRYSTALLIZATION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE: XVI-XVIII CENTURIES.
1. FIRST EMPIRICAL GENERALIZATIONS
Gresham's law
The dependence of the price level on the amount of money in circulation
2. MERCANTILISM
general characteristics
Increment of scientific knowledge
John Lo
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 3 FORMATION OF THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
1. THE MECHANISM OF THE MARKET, OR THE IDEA OF THE “INVISIBLE HAND”
Locke: labor theory of property
Adam Smith: Reply to Mandeville
2. THE THEORY OF PRODUCTION, OR THE MYSTERY OF THE WEALTH OF THE PEOPLES
W. Petty: "Labor is the father ... of wealth, the Earth is his mother"
Boisguillebert and Cantillon I
Physiocrats
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 4 THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL: THE THEORY OF COST AND DISTRIBUTION
1. WEALTH OF NATIONS: FACTORS OF GROWTH
Adam Smith and Soviet statistics
Thrift Factor
Labor productivity factor.
2. THEORY OF COST
On "value" and "value": a terminological digression
The world of "natural prices"
How to measure cost?
The commensurability of exchange values.
Comparison of wealth in time.
What determines the level of relative prices?
Profit and interest in classical political economy
Smith's formula for the price of a commodity
3. DAVID RICARDO ON RENT AND THE FUTURE OF CAPITALISM
The classical theory of ground rent
Income distribution model
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 5 CLASSICAL SCHOOL: MACROECONOMIC THEORIES
1. MONEY AND PRODUCT
income as an expense
The concept of capital
Capital and money
Wage Fund Theory
Hume: The Mechanism of Prices and Cash Flows
2. Say's Law
"Markets" and "sales markets"
Say's critics: Sismondi and Maltu
Thomas Malthus
Smith's Dogma, or the First Secret of Say's Law
Demand for money, or the second secret of Say's law
3. DISCUSSIONS ABOUT MONEY AND CREDIT
"Law of outflow" and the doctrine of real bills
Henry Thornton
The dispute between the monetary and banking schools
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 6 CLASSICAL SCHOOL: IDEOLOGICAL VERSIONS
1. THE SPLIT OF LIBERALISM
Free Traders
The Origins of Liberal Reformism: Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart Mill
2. CRITICS OF CAPITALISM
Socialist Ricardians
Saint-Simonists against private property
P.-J. Proudhon: "Property is theft!"
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 7 ECONOMIC THEORY K. MARX
1. THE PRINCIPLE OF HISTORICISM
2. CONTINUATION OF THE CLASSICAL TRADITION
Surplus value theory
Reproduction theory
Capital structure according to Marx
Simple reproduction
Extended reproduction
On the nature of the average rate of profit
On uniform norms of surplus value and profit
Law of the downward trend of the average rate of profit
Fundamentals of the theory of economic crises
3. POLITICAL ECONOMY - THE SCIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
Alienation of labor
Commodity as a real relation
Capital and converted forms of surplus value
Capital as a real relation
The fate of capitalism
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 8 HISTORICAL SCHOOL IN POLITICAL ECONOMY
1. "ISMS"
2. FRIEDRICH LIST - GEOPOLITICAL ECONOMIST
3. "OLD" HISTORICAL SCHOOL
4. "NEW" HISTORICAL SCHOOL: HISTORICAL AND ETHICAL DIRECTION
5. "YOUNG" HISTORICAL SCHOOL: IN SEARCH OF THE "SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM"
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 9 SOCIAL ECONOMY: THE ORIGINS OF MODERN CONCEPTS ON THE GOALS AND WAYS OF REFORMING THE ECONOMY AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC RELATIONS
1. SOCIAL ECONOMY AND ECONOMIC SCIENCE
2. FRENCH SOLIDARISM AND GERMAN KATEDERE SOCIALISM
3. HENRY GEORGE: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES THROUGH LAND OWNERSHIP
4. SOME ASPECTS OF THE SOCIAL DOCTRINE OF CATHOLICISM
RECOMMENDED READING
SECTION II THE BEGINNING OF THE HISTORY OF MODERN ECONOMIC THOUGHT: MARGINALISM
CHAPTER 10 THE MARGINALIST REVOLUTION. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF MARGINALISM
2. MARGINALIST THEORY OF VALUE AND ITS ADVANTAGES
Cardinalism and ordinalism
3. HOW THE MARGINALIST REVOLUTION HAPPENED
4. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE MARGINALIST REVOLUTION
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 11 AUSTRIAN SCHOOL
1. METHODOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE AUSTRIAN SCHOOL
2. THE DOCTRINE OF BENEFITS AND EXCHANGE OF MENGER AND BOHEM-BAWERK
"Fundamentals of the doctrine of national economy»
The doctrine of exchange.
3. THE THEORY OF OPPORTUNITY COSTS AND VISER'S IMPUTATION
Opportunity cost concept
imputation theory
4. THE THEORY OF CAPITAL AND INTEREST BÖHH-BAWERK
5. DISPUTE ABOUT METHODS
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 12 THE ENGLISH MARGINALISTS: JEVONS AND EDGWORTH
1. JEVONS' UTILITY THEORY
2. THE THEORY OF EXCHANGE JEVONS
3. JEVONS' LABOR SUPPLY THEORY
4. JEVONS CHAIN
5. THE EDGEWORTH EXCHANGE THEORY
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 13 THE THEORY OF GENERAL ECONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM
1. LEON WALRAS AND HIS PLACE IN THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT; MAIN WORKS
2. GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODEL INCLUDING PRODUCTION; SOLUTION EXISTENCE PROBLEM AND THE TATONNEMENT PROCESS
The problem of money integration
3. THE THEORY OF GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM IN THE 20TH CENTURY: THE CONTRIBUTION OF A. WALD, J. von Neumann, J. HSH K. ARROW AND J. DEBRAY
4. MACROECONOMIC ASPECT OF THE GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODEL
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 14 WELFARE ECONOMIC THEORY
1. GENERAL VIEW ON THE SUBJECT
2. MODERN APPROACHES TO THE DEFINITION OF THE PUBLIC GOOD. PARETO OPTIMUM
3. THE LEAGUE'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF WELFARE: THE CONCEPTS OF THE NATIONAL DIVIDEND AND MARKET IMPERFECTION; PRINCIPLES OF STATE INTERVENTION
4. FUNDAMENTAL WELFARE THEOREMS. OPTIMALITY AND CONTROL: THE PROBLEM OF MARKET SOCIALISM
5. ATTEMPT TO SOLUTION THE PROBLEM OF COMPARISON OF OPTIMAL STATES
6. A NEW LOOK ON THE PROBLEM OF INTERVENTION
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 15 ALFRED MARSHALL'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC THEORY
MARSHALL'S PLACE IN THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT
2. PARTIAL EQUILIBRIUM METHOD
3. UTILITY AND DEMAND ANALYSIS
Demand curve
Elasticity of demand
consumer surplus
4. COST ANALYSIS AND PROPOSALS
5. EQUILIBRIUM PRICE AND INFLUENCE OF THE TIME FACTOR
market day
Long term
Very long periods
Influence of Demand and Costs on Equilibrium Price Formation
6. ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY OF WELFARE
Government intervention and public welfare
Monopoly problem
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 16 IN SEARCH OF A “MONEY ECONOMY” MODEL: C. WICKSELL AND I. FISHER
1. KNUTH WIKKSELL - THEORETICAL ECONOMIST AND PUBLICIST
2. THE CONCEPT OF THE CUMULATIVE PROCESS
3. THE THEORY OF GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM AND THE CONCEPT OF I. FISHER'S PERCENT
4. THE THEORY OF MONEY I. FISHER
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 17 THE MARGINALIST THEORY OF INCOME DISTRIBUTION: J. B. CLARK, F.G. WIKSTEED, K. WIKSELL
1. BACKGROUND
2. THE THEORY OF MARGINAL PRODUCTIVITY
"Wealth Distribution"
Statics and dynamics
General evaluation of Clarke's distribution theory
3. THE PROBLEM OF PRODUCT EXHAUST
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 18 THEORIES OF ENTREPRENEURIAL FUNCTION AND PROFIT
1. BUSINESS PROFIT - FACTOR OR RESIDUAL INCOME?
2. ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS CARRYING THE BURDEN OF RISK OR UNCERTAINTY: R. CANTILLON, I. THUNEN, F. KNIGHT
3. ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS COORDINATION OF FACTORS OF PRODUCTION: J.-B. SAY
4. ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS INNOVATION: I. SCHUMPETER
"Theory economic development»
Entrepreneurial function
Entrepreneurial income
5. ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS ARBITRAGE TRANSACTIONS: I. KIRTSNER
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 19 AMERICAN INSTITUTIONALISM
1. DICHOTOMIES OF T. VEBLEN
2. STATISTICAL INSTITUTIONALISM W. C. MITCHELL
3. LEGAL INSTITUTIONALISM J.R. COMMONSA
4. RENEWED INSTITUTIONALISM J.K. GALBRAITH
RECOMMENDED READING
SECTION III RUSSIAN THOUGHT FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SOVIET PERIOD
CHAPTER 20 RUSSIAN VARIATIONS OF THE FIRST SCHOOLS OF POLITECONOMY
1. RUSSIAN MERCANTILISM
2. PHYSIOCRACY IN RUSSIA
3. “TWO OPINIONS ON FOREIGN TRADE”: FREE TRADING AND PROTECTIONISM
4. CLASSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY IN THE EVALUATION OF LIBERAL AND REVOLUTIONARY WESTERNING
CHAPTER 21 ECONOMIC ROMANTISM
1. THE QUESTION OF THE PEASANT COMMUNITY: SLAVOPHILISM AND "RUSSIAN SOCIALISM"
2. DIFFERENT INTELLIGENCE AND THE IDEOLOGIZATION OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
3. THE LABOR THEORY OF VALUE AND "CAPITALIST PESSIMISM"
4. THE CONCEPT OF "PEOPLE'S PRODUCTION"
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 22 "LEGAL MARXISM" AND REVISIONISM
1. MARXISM AS A DOCTRINE OF THE CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA
2. CONTROVERSY ON THE NATIONAL MARKET: A CRITIQUE OF POPULARITY
3. THE VALUE DISCUSSION: A CRITIQUE OF MARXISM
4. THE RISE OF REVISIONISM AND ITS PENETRATION INTO RUSSIA
5. AGRICULTURAL QUESTION
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 23 THE THEORY OF FINANCIAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM
1. LENINISM-MARXISM WITHOUT REVISIONISM
2. THE THEORY OF FINANCIAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM
3. THE CONCEPT OF "MATERIAL PREREQUISITES OF SOCIALISM"
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 24 ETHICAL AND SOCIAL DIRECTION: M.I. TUGAN-BARANOVSKY AND S.N. BULGAKOV
1. RUSSIAN ECONOMIC THOUGHT AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURIES
2. M.I. TUGAN-BARANOVSKY: ETHICAL PRINCIPLE AND ECONOMIC THEORY
3. S.N. BULGAKOV: IN SEARCH OF A CHRISTIAN ECONOMIC WORLD VIEW
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 25 FORMATION OF THE DOCTRINE OF PLANNED ECONOMY
MARXISM ON A SCIENTIFICLY PLANNED SOCIETY
2. TOTAL ORGANIZATIONAL SCIENCE PROJECT
3. MODEL OF "ONE FACTORY" AND ITS CORRECTION
CHAPTER 26 ECONOMIC DISCUSSIONS IN THE 1920S ON THE NATURE OF PLANNED ECONOMY
1. MARKET, PLAN, BALANCE
2. "GENETICS" AND "TELEOLOGY" IN DISCUSSIONS ABOUT METHODS OF BUILDING ECONOMIC PLANS
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 27 ORGANIZATIONAL AND PRODUCTION SCHOOL
1. CIRCLE A.V. CHAYANOV: AGRONOMS - COOPERATORS - THEORETICS
STATICS AND DYNAMICS OF LABOR PEASANT ECONOMY
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 28 N.D. KONDRATIEV
1. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AT THE TURN
2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF KONDRAT'EV'S SCIENTIFIC HERITAGE. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE GENERAL THEORY OF ECONOMIC DYNAMICS
3. THE THEORY OF LONG WAVES AND THE DISCUSSION AROUND IT
4. PROBLEMS OF REGULATION, PLANNING AND FORECASTING
RECOMMENDED READING
SECTION IV THE PRESENT STAGE: FROM KEYNS TO THE PRESENT
CHAPTER 29 J.M. KEYNS: A NEW THEORY FOR A CHANGED WORLD
1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF J.M. KEYNS FOR MODERN ECONOMIC SCIENCE
2. MAIN STAGES OF LIFE, SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
3. MORAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION AND ECONOMIC IDEAS
4. FROM THE QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY TO THE MONETARY THEORY OF PRODUCTION
5. "GENERAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT, INTEREST AND MONEY": METHODOLOGICAL, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL INNOVATIONS
6. THE THEORY OF KEYNS AND ITS INTERPRETATION J. HIKSOM
7. DEVELOPMENT AND RETHINKING OF KEYNE'S LEGACY
Annex 1 Responses to "General Theory"
Appendix 2 Phillips Curve
Appendix 3 Study of the type of functions of the ISLM type model
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 30 UNCERTAINTY AND INFORMATION PROBLEMS IN ECONOMIC THEORY
1. BACKGROUND
2. EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY
Usefulness: the resurrection of cardinalism
Probability concepts
anomalies
3. ECONOMIC THEORY OF INFORMATION - SEARCH THEORY
4. ASYMMETRY OF INFORMATION
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 31 THE THEORIES OF ECONOMIC GROWTH
1. MAIN TOPICS OF THE THEORY OF GROWTH
2. BACKGROUND
3. HARROD–DOMAR MODEL
1. Fundamental growth equation
Guaranteed Growth
natural growth
4. R. SOLOW'S NEOCLASSICAL GROWTH MODEL
"Golden Rule"
5. POST-KEYNSIAN CONCEPTS OF ECONOMIC GROWTH. KALDORA MODEL
6. NEW THEORIES OF GROWTH
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 32 SUPPLY ECONOMIC THEORY
1. A CONSERVATIVE CHALLENGE TO KEYNS
2. ECONOMY OF THE SUPPLY. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CONCEPT
3. THE LAFFER CURVE AND ITS JUSTIFICATION
4. EMPIRICAL ESTIMATES OF THE MOST IMPORTANT DEPENDENCES. FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
CHAPTER 33 MONETARISM: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONCEPT
2. EVOLUTION OF MONETARISM AND ITS VARIETY
Global monetarism
Econometric studies
Nominal income model
An attempt at a structural approach
Phillips curve and its interpretation by monetarists
Unorthodox monetarism
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 34 "NEW CLASSICS". RESTORATION OF TRADITION
1. "NEW CLASSICS" IN THE CONTEXT OF TOPICAL PROBLEMS OF THEORY AND PRACTICE
2. THE RATIONAL EXPECTATION HYPOTHESIS
3. R. LUKAS EQUILIBRIUM CYCLIC PROCESS
4. THE NEW CLASSIC MACROECONOMIC MODEL AND THE IMPACT OF MONETARY POLICY ON THE ECONOMY
Annex 1 On the question of the ratio of expected and ongoing events
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 35 F. HAJEK AND THE AUSTRIAN TRADITION
1. F. HAYEK AND ECONOMIC THOUGHT OF THE XX CENTURY.
2. MAIN PROPOSITIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHY AND METHODOLOGY OF F. HAYEK AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR ECONOMIC THEORY
3. ECONOMIC THEORY AS A PROBLEM OF COORDINATION
4. HAYEK'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF PRICE, CAPITAL, CYCLE AND MONEY
5. PRINCIPLES AND LIMITS OF ECONOMIC POLICY
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 36 EVOLUTIONARY ECONOMY
1. THE EVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLE IN THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
2. MODERN APPROACH TO THE APPLICATION OF THE EVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLE IN THE ECONOMY
3. MAIN DIRECTIONS AND DISCUSSION ISSUES IN EVOLUTIONARY ECONOMY
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 37 BEHAVIORAL ECONOMIC THEORY
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
2. MODEL OF LIMITED RATIONALITY - METHODOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIORAL THEORY
3. MODELS OF VARIABLE RATIONALITY
4. BEHAVIORAL THEORY OF THE FIRM - MELLON-CARNEGY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL
5. BEHAVIORAL CONSUMPTION - MICHIGAN SCHOOL
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 38 A NEW INSTITUTIONAL THEORY
1. METHODOLOGICAL FEATURES AND STRUCTURE OF THE NEW INSTITUTIONAL THEORY
2. PROPERTY RIGHTS, TRANSACTION COSTS, CONTRACT RELATIONSHIPS
3. COASE THEOREM
4. THEORY OF ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS
5. ECONOMY OF LAW
6. PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 39 PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY
1. IDEA FOUNDATION OF THE THEORY OF PUBLIC CHOICE
2. PROVIDING PUBLIC BENEFITS IN A DIRECT DEMOCRACY
Equilibrium in the voluntary exchange model
Costs of the voting process
3. PROBLEMS OF CHOICE UNDER REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY
The "median voter" theorem
Bimodal Preference Distribution
Scheme of interaction between subjects of the political market
4. THEORIES BASED ON THE CONCEPT OF PUBLIC CHOICE
Constitutional Choice Theory
Constitutional and post-constitutional stages of the contract process
The theory of endogenous economic policy determination
Optimal lobbying costs
Determination of economic policy by a political party
Losses of society due to the search for political rent
Economic theory of political institutions
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 40 "ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM"
1. ECONOMIC THEORY OF DISCRIMINATION
2. THE THEORY OF HUMAN CAPITAL
New consumption theory
3. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRIME
4. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION IN THE POLITICAL MARKET
5. FAMILY ECONOMY
6. "ECONOMIC APPROACH" AS A RESEARCH PROGRAM
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 41 A FEW WORDS ABOUT METHODOLOGY
1. WHAT IS METHODOLOGY AND WHAT IS INTEREST IN IT TODAY?
2. FROM THE HISTORY OF METHODOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS: FROM DISPUTES ABOUT THE SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES TO THE PROBLEM OF THE CRITERION OF THEORY TRUE
3. "AN UNTYPICAL VIEW": AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS AND THE LANGUAGE OF THEORY AS A WAY OF PERSUASION
RECOMMENDED READING
CHAPTER 42 UNITY AND DIVERSITY OF MODERN ECONOMIC THEORY
1. MAIN CURRENT AND ALTERNATIVES
2. SPECIALIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL DIRECTIONS OF ECONOMIC THEORY
3. INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS DETERMINING THE STRUCTURE OF ECONOMIC THEORY
4. NATIONAL, CULTURAL AND OTHER FEATURES OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT
RECOMMENDED READING
Series "Higher Education"
founded in 1996
HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT
Moscow
INFRA-M
2000
INSTITUTE "OPEN SOCIETY"
BBK65.02ya73
UDC(075.8)330.1
I90
Educational literature in humanitarian and social disciplines for higher education and specialized secondary educational institutions prepared and published with the assistance of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) within the framework of
Programs "Higher education".
The views and approaches of the author do not necessarily coincide with the position of the program. In particularly controversial cases, an alternative point of view is reflected in the prefaces and afterwords.
Editorial Board: V.I. Bakhmin, Ya.M. Berger, E.Yu. Genieva, G.G. Diligensky, V.D. Shadrikov.
I90 History of economic doctrines / Ed. V. Avtonomova, O. Ananyina, N. Makasheva: Proc. allowance. - M.: INFRA-M, 2000. - 784 p. - (Series "Higher education").
ISBN 5-16-000173-5
The paper examines the history of economic thought in the 19th and 20th centuries. with an emphasis on current trends, from marginalism to the latest concepts that are not covered in the literature. An attempt is made to analyze the development of economic science in the interrelation of its various directions, taking into account the methodological, philosophical and social aspects of these theories, Russian economic thought in line with the European one.
The authors sought to select from the concepts that existed in the past those that had the greatest impact on modern views, as well as to show the diversity of approaches to solving the same problems of economic science and to formulate the principles in accordance with which these problems were selected.
Tutorial is intended for students, as well as for graduate students and teachers of economic universities.
ISBN 5-16-000173-5 BBK65.02ya7
B.C. Avtonomov,
O.I. Ananin,
S.A. Afontsev,
G.D. Gloveli,
R.I. Kapelyushnikov,
ON THE. Makasheva, 2000
INFRA-M, 2000
FOREWORD
Exploring the History of Ideas
necessarily precedes
liberation of thought.
J.M. Keynes
Keynes's thought, put into the epigraph, defines the super-task of this book. Free thought is not the result of a confluence of circumstances, it is the result of long and constant efforts of many people to form it, cultivate it and protect it from those who try to limit it or "direct" it in the right direction for themselves. The history of ideas is a school of thought; to pass this school means not only to expand our knowledge, but also to strengthen the freedom of thought.
The basis of this book was a course of lectures, which since 1995 has been delivered by the Department of Institutional Economics and Economic History in State University- Higher School of Economics (SU-HSE). As teachers of the history of economic thought, we have always wanted to have at our disposal a textbook that gives a broad, visible in its format picture of the evolution of economic thought, modern in its concept and free from ideological conjuncture. It is this desire that served as the main motive for the preparation of this publication.
Building such a course of lectures, and then a textbook, inevitably poses a number of complex problems of a methodological and substantive nature for the authors. First of all, the question arises of how, within the framework of a very compact training course, designed, as a rule, for one or two semesters, quite fully and holistically present a picture of the entire history of economic thought. The solution to this issue is often seen in the excessive reduction of the text: the presentation is reduced to listing dates and facts from the life of the largest economists and a very conditional, and sometimes incomprehensible description of their theories. At the same time, the logic of their thought, the peculiarities of the perception of the same problems by different authors, the nature of the evolution of various scientific traditions and their influence on economic policy and public ideas - all this remains outside the scope of the course. With this approach, the course itself largely loses its meaning, and the student aims at cramming.
There is a problem of reflecting the latest theories. In most educational historical and scientific literature, the evolution of economic thought can be traced only to the middle of the 20th century, while its latest stage is represented, at best, by fragmentary information. This is also characteristic of the most authoritative translated textbooks by M. Blaug "Economic Thought in Retrospect" and T. Negisha "History economic theory”(Note that Negisha's book is a master's textbook, not intended for undergraduate studies, and Blaug's work is heterogeneous in complexity and sometimes difficult to understand). The desire to bring the material presented up to date is an important positive feature of the three-volume university course edited by prof. A.G. Khudokormov (M., 1989-1998), however, its format is not consistent with the prevailing university practice, focused on relatively short - one or two semester - training courses, and the time frame for the publication of this publication could not but affect its conceptual unity.
As for the problems of a substantive nature, they are largely due to the need to combine the chronological approach, natural for history, with the problem-thematic approach, which makes it possible to more objectively reflect the diversity of scientific traditions of economic thought. Any work of this type presupposes a certain selection, and not only the selection of scientific schools, names and concepts in themselves, but also the determination of the angle of their consideration. We are aware that such a selection cannot be completely objective. It inevitably bears the imprint of the intellectual traditions followed by the authors, their scientific predilections and interests. It remains to be hoped that in this case we are talking about academic subjectivism, reflecting the research experience of its authors, who are actively involved in scientific life.
Main distinctive features The proposed textbook can be reduced to two points: firstly, the authors sought to rely in their work on primary sources and give a modern interpretation of the past and present of economic science, taking into account the latest achievements of world historical and scientific thought; At the same time, it was not at all about “adjusting” old ideas to modern theories - from our point of view, the historian of economic science should be, among other things, the custodian of its intellectual “gene pool”, conscious of the value of the diversity of its scientific traditions and research programs, within which different scientific problems can be solved, different, sometimes non-overlapping, subject areas and their own analytical techniques and methods can be developed; secondly, the book presents a broader palette of modern economic theory than in other works of this genre available in Russian: in its fourth section, along with traditional topics (monetarism, theories of economic growth, institutionalism), the reader will find chapters on such rapidly developing areas of modern scientific thought as information economics, evolutionary economics, and behavioral economics.
The authors very much hope that this book will find an interested response in Russian universities and will contribute to raising the prestige of the historical and scientific component of economic education.
The curricula of different universities give the history of economic doctrines a different place, and this cannot but affect the way this manual is used in the educational process. At the Higher School of Economics, this subject takes two semesters in the second or third year of undergraduate studies (96 hours in total, including: lectures - 64 hours, seminars - 32 hours). The structure of the lecture course correlates with the structure of this manual as follows:
I semester
Section I (4 p.m.): chapters 1 - 8.
Section II (6 p.m.): chapters 10-11, 12 (together with 17), 13-16, 18-19.
II semester
Section III (6 hours): chapters 21 (together with 22), 24, 28.
Section IV (24 hours): chapters 29-36, 38 (together with 37), 40-42.
Of course, this is just one of possible options construction of a two-semester training course. The presence in the textbook of a number of additional chapters that were not included in the original lecture course leaves the departments and teachers a certain freedom of maneuver in the formation on its basis of a specific curriculum. Thus, the structure of the manual makes it possible to significantly strengthen the section of the course devoted to the history of Russian economic thought, to more fully present individual sections of economic science (for example, the history of monetary theories, micro- or macroeconomics, etc.), to adjust the range of areas of modern economic thought considered taking into account the profile of the audience.
For universities in which the history of economic doctrines is studied during one semester (32-36 hours), the following basic course structure can be recommended:
Section I (10 hours): chapters 2-5, 7.
Section II (12 hours): chapters 11,12 (together with 17), 13-15, 19.
Section III (2 hours): chapter 28.
Section IV (8 hours): chapters 29, 30 (or 36), 33 (together with 34), 38.
In any case, sections and chapters that are not included in the basic program of the course can be used in determining the topics of students' written work, for preparing special courses, and also as material for independent study by students.
To what extent the authors and editors managed to achieve their goals is up to the reader to judge. In any case, we are grateful to the students of the HSE Faculty of Economics in 1995-1999, whose interest or passivity, questions at lectures and answers at exams served as a constant tuning fork against which the final edition of the text of the book was verified.
Significant assistance in the work on the manuscript was provided by many of our colleagues, who, in the role of official or unofficial reviewers, found time to carefully read our texts and drew our attention to certain miscalculations and omissions. To all of them, regardless of the extent to which the authors were able to take advantage of their comments, our sincere thanks!
Finally, the fact that this book was published at the current economically difficult time, the authors owe the financial support of the Open Society Institute, which accompanied this project at all stages of its implementation.
Team of authors:
head Department of IMEMO RAS, Corresponding Member. RAS, Dr. economy sciences, prof. SU-HSE B.C. Avtonomov - Preface, ch. 10-12, 15, 17, 18, 30, 31,37,42;
head Department of the State University-Higher School of Economics, head. Sector of IE RAS, Ph.D. O.I. Ananin - Introduction, Ch. 1-7;
head Department of INION RAS, Dr. economy sciences, prof. SU-HSE N.A. Makasheva - Ch. 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 24, 28, 29, 32-36, 41;
Art. researcher at IMEMO RAS, Ph.D. economy Sciences S.A. Afontsev - Ch. 39;
Associate Professor of the Department of the State University-Higher School of Economics, Ph.D. G.D. Gloveli - ch. 8, 19-27;
Leading Researcher, IMEMO RAS, Ph.D. economy Sciences R.I. Kapelyushnikov - Ch. 38, 40.
I.U. took part in compiling the name index. Sagitov.
V. Avtonomov
O. Ananin
N. Makasheva
INTRODUCTION
Just as the earth's crust was formed from layers of different geological periods, so modern economic science is the result of layers of different historical epochs, each of which brought its own observations, proposed its own topics, formulated its own concepts and theories.
Turning to science, we each time - voluntarily or involuntarily - correlate its capabilities with our current problems. From the treasury of economic knowledge, we single out what we consider important, leaving everything else aside. Over time, many facets of accumulated knowledge fade and are forgotten, their true meaning is lost. As a result, we sometimes do not notice the complexity in those phenomena that have become familiar to us and therefore seem simple and banal; and vice versa - we give a universal character to facts and dependencies, by their nature particular and random. The task of the history of economic thought is to restore the lost meanings of our knowledge. Contrary to popular belief, the history of science is more than a cabinet of curiosities that keeps the memory of the delusions of the past. This is a better way, i.e. more fully and deeper, to master what has been accumulated in the arsenal of modern science.
Development of economic thought: historical context
In order to restore the true meaning of a scientific idea or concept, it is important to understand the conditions that brought it to life, in other words, to understand the historical context in which it arose and received a public response. The task is complicated by the fact that economic thought belongs simultaneously to three different spheres of human activity: the world of economics, the world of science and the world of ideology. And each of these worlds sets its own special historical context, generates relatively independent impulses for the development of economic ideas.
The world of economics serves as an object of economic knowledge, i.e. determines what is to be understood and researched. So, the economy of the XX century. as an object of study is strikingly different from the economy of ancient society. An important feature of economics is connected with this, which distinguishes it from most areas of natural science - physical laws, such as the law of Archimedes, are not subject to time: a body immersed in a liquid behaves today in exactly the same way as it behaved a hundred, thousand and million years ago. Thus, the world of economics is an irreversibly changeable historical and economic context for the development of economic thought.
The world of science dictates how, i.e. With what tools and methods, the process of cognition is carried out. Each era develops its own special ideas about what knowledge should be considered scientifically substantiated, what research methods should be effective. In modern times, the leading sciences had a decisive influence on such ideas - in different time they were mathematics, astronomy, physics. The practice of these sciences became the norm, the standard of scientificity, and the public authority of other branches of knowledge often depended on their ability to follow the accepted standard. The leading sciences borrowed methods of analysis, methods of argumentation - up to the style of presentation of scientific treatises. In other words, the world of science absorbs the "spirit of the era" and serves as a historical and cultural context for the evolution of economic thought.
The world of ideology and politics determines what goals cognition should serve, what attitudes and criteria should be followed in selecting specific research topics. The diversity and complexity of the world around us is such that the subject area of almost any branch of science is inexhaustible, and, accordingly, the process of its knowledge is endless. On the contrary, each specific study, the activity of an individual scientist, is inevitably "finite - in terms of topics, aspects of its consideration, tasks to be solved. In practice, this means that in science there are always mechanisms for selecting the topics and problems of research. Naturally, such mechanisms cannot but reflect the economic and political interests represented in society, ethical attitudes and social ideals. revolutionary or completely utopian - often had a more powerful influence on the development of social, including economic, thought than simply the desire to explain the prevailing social reality.Hence the importance for the history of economic thought of its historical and ideological context.
The combination of these contexts forms the environment in which the main characters of our history operate - people, authors of new economic observations, generators of new ideas and theories. Which of the contexts are more important, which are less - each of them determines in his own way, depending on the circumstances of life, personal beliefs and passions. It is here that the source of the personal, unpredictable beginning in the history of economic thought.
With the separation of the economy into a separate branch of knowledge with its own textbooks, departments, journals, research centers and scientific societies, in other words, as this type of activity is professionalized and institutionalized, another important factor in the development of economic thought comes into play - the factor of the scientific community. The development of science ceases to be the work of lone enthusiasts. Within the scientific community, professional communication becomes more regular, new ideas and data on research results spread faster, and the focus of scientific research on obtaining new knowledge increases. Accordingly, the selection of ideas that claim to be novelty and professional recognition becomes more stringent. The scientific community rejects the claims of amateurs and graphomaniacs who do not have the basics of special knowledge. This reduces the level of information "noise" in the channels of professional communication, but sometimes it has a negative effect, making it difficult to perceive ideas that are truly original, breaking with established approaches. In short, another context for the development of economic thought is emerging - intra-scientific, requiring that new ideas in a dispute with previously proven truths be tested for novelty, originality and significance.
History of Economic Thought
Introduction
The history of economic doctrines is only a part of the history of economic thought.
The history of economic thought begins from those time immemorial when people first thought about the goals of their economic activity, the ways and means of achieving them, the relations that develop between people in the process and as a result of obtaining and distributing goods, exchanging products and services produced.
Economic thought is an extremely broad concept. These are the ideas that exist in the mass consciousness, and religious assessments, and prescriptions relating to economic relations, and the theoretical constructions of scientists, and the economic programs of political parties ... The sphere of economic thought is diverse: here are the general laws of the economy, and the features of the economy of individual industries, and the problems of location of production, and money circulation, and the efficiency of capital investments, and the tax system, and methods of keeping records of income and expenses, and the history of the economy, and economic legislation - it’s impossible to list everything.
In all this complex set, it is possible, with a certain conventionality, to single out economic doctrines - theoretical concepts that reflect the basic laws of economic life, describe the relationship between its subjects, identify driving forces and significant factors in the creation, distribution and exchange of goods.
Economic doctrines are much younger than economic thought. The history of economic doctrines begins from the 16th century; its origins are inextricably linked with the development of the capitalist commodity economy.
This course contains a brief description of the most important theoretical provisions and methodological guidelines of various scientific schools that have left a significant mark on the history of economic doctrines.
Section 1. Formation of economic thought.
Topic 1.1. The subject of the history of economic science
At first glance, the definition of the subject of the history of economic doctrine is not difficult: it is a chronological description, including comments on the most productive attempts to create more and more accurate and correct economic views.
However, this understanding of economic science requires clarification. First of all, the concept has changed over the centuries. subject economic theory. In the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, the subject of economics was the study of "the nature and causes of the wealth of nations". In the last quarter of the 19th century, economics began to be seen as the science of human behavior, pursuing certain goals and using limited resources. In the 20th century, economic theories have become more advanced. Statistical and analytical methods emerged that were capable of solving problems that their predecessors had not been able to solve.
It is also important to understand the methods of cognition of economic science, which allow you to highlight the essence of various economic theories, look at them from different angles, try to understand how this or that theory would manifest itself in different historical eras. You need to know that the main methods are:
1. The method of scientific abstraction - expresses deep, causal relationships and patterns of economic development. It is a movement from the abstract to the concrete, from the general to the particular.
2. Dialectical - the emergence, origin, maturity, withering away of economic phenomena, the struggle of opposites, resolutions of contradictions, etc.
3. Analysis and synthesis - highlighting in the essence of the phenomena the most characteristic features, formulating laws and regularities.
4. The method of induction - the derivation of a theory from facts and observations.
5. Deduction method - formulating hypotheses and confirming them with facts.
There are also system, historical, logical and other methods.
Topic 1.2. Economic doctrines of the ancient world.
The first major centers of civilization originated in the territory of Ancient Asia. Slave ownership reached significant development, the first slave-owning states arose. The most significant of them are:
Babylonian Kingdom - Code of King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). The code of laws of King Hammurabi gives an idea that the division of society into slaves and slave owners was recognized as natural and eternal. Slaves were equated with the property of slave owners, concern for the protection of private property and the development of monetary relations was reflected. The basis of the economy of the Babylonian kingdom was a subsistence economy.
Ancient China - Confucianism, a doctrine created by Confucius (551-479 BC). He proceeded from the fact that the social structure is based on the divine principle. Confucius considered the division of society into the "noble" who make up the upper class and the "common people" whose lot is physical labor. His teaching is aimed at strengthening the emerging slave system, strengthening the authority of the state and the power of the supreme ruler of China.
Ancient India - the treatise "Arthashastra" by Kautilya (late 4th - early 3rd century BC). The treatise tells about social inequality, justifies and consolidates it. The main branch of the economy was agriculture, the construction of irrigation systems, crafts and trade developed, and the idea of active state intervention in the economy was promoted. If a resident of India became a slave, then he could have his own slaves.
Ancient Greece - the greatest role in shaping the teachings of ancient
Greece was played by Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle.
Xenophon (430-355 BC) a student of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. His economic views are set forth in the work "Domostroy", which contained numerous advice to slave owners, whose lot was the management of the economy, the exploitation of slaves, but not physical labor. He considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy. He was the first to notice that the division of labor contributes to the prosperity of production. Crafts and trade were not included in the category of worthy activities.
Plato (427-347 BC) first expressed the idea of the inevitability of dividing the state into two parts: the rich and the poor. Only foreigners could be slaves. He considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy, but he also approved of crafts. Slaves Plato considered the main productive force.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) is known as the tutor of Alexander the Great. His views on slavery coincide with those of Xenophon and Plato. The merit of Aristotle is an attempt to penetrate the essence of economic phenomena. Wealth he divided into natural and monetary. He considered the natural to be true, because wealth has its limits, but monetary wealth has no such limits. Proceeding from this, he introduced the concepts of "economy" and "chresmatika", explained the need for the circulation of money in the economic sphere.
Ancient Rome completed the development of the economic thought of the Ancient World, reflecting the next stage in the evolution of slavery.
Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) considered the maintenance of slaves, the methods of their exploitation. He argued the need for harsh exploitation of slaves. Subsistence farming was his ideal, but trade was not excluded.
Varro (116-27 B.C.) reflected a more advanced form of slavery, in which slave owners placed their affairs in the hands of managers. His concerns are connected with the strengthening of subsistence farming.
Columella (1st century AD) reflected the crisis of slavery: low productivity slave labor, in
Topic 1.3. Economic thought of the era of feudalism.
The era of the Middle Ages covers a large historical period: in Western Europe - from the 5th century to the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries; in Russia - from the 9th century to the reform of 1861.
The politics of the Middle Ages is associated with the defense of the feudal order, according to which subsistence farming was considered a virtue, and trade and usury were not encouraged. The church had exclusive rights, so the economic thought of this period was clothed in a religious shell. The originality of economic thought was clearly reflected in the teachings of Catholicism. The Church increased its power, and possessing huge wealth and landed property, justified the domination of serfdom and defended its positions with the help of church rules - canons.
He played a huge role in shaping the teachings of the era of feudalism. Thomas Aquinas(1225-1275), who created an extensive work "The sum of the theologies." His teachings are still widely used by the Vatican. He dealt with such issues as social inequality, fair price, property, interest, profit, and so on.
Aquinas argued that people are born different in nature, so the peasants should be engaged in physical labor, and the privileged classes in spiritual activity.
IN private property he saw the basis of the economy and believed that a person has the right to appropriate wealth. Therefore, the property necessary to satisfy needs is natural and necessary.
fair price is formed on the one hand from the correct price, i.e. production costs, on the other hand, it must guarantee the participants in the exchange an existence worthy of their rank.
Profit, received by merchants, can be considered as payment for their labor.
Aquinas tried to find a compromise regarding the collection percent which was forbidden by the church. He justifies interest by saying that it is a reward for the fact that the creditor is deprived of a possible income from the use of his funds.
The economic thought of the Russian state also existed in close connection with the religious beliefs of the people. Information about that time can be obtained from chronicles, letters of princes, church literature. The first set of laws is Russian truth"(11-13 century), reflecting the practical level achieved by economic thought by this time. It fixed the process of feudalization of the state, gave a legal definition of subsistence farming, contained norms for trade and protection of the interests of Russian merchants, the right to levy taxes, dues in kind, etc.
The economic interests of the landed nobility in the 16th century were expressed Yermolai Erasmus in labor" ruler". This is the first economic and political treatise in Russia, which outlines a system of measures to address the main issues of that time. The question of the position of the peasant masses occupies a great deal of attention. Erasmus proposed to reduce or exempt them from cash payments and shift them onto the shoulders of the urban population. He proposed a reform in the field of land tenure - the distribution of land to peasants and service people.
The first Russian economist is called I. T. Pososhkova. His book " On Poverty and Wealth"- the first work entirely devoted to the problems of Russia's economic development. The main idea of the book is the elimination of poverty and the multiplication of wealth.
He saw the main reasons for the country's economic backwardness in the plight of the peasants and the underdevelopment of the financial system. He condemned poll tax, because it did not take into account differences in the economic situation of payers.
He gave priority trade: defended the interests of merchants, proposed to establish firm and uniform prices for goods, control the course of trade, instead of a multitude of duties, establish one - in the amount of 10%. He forbade the export of raw materials and strictly select exported goods.
Pososhkov advocated the development of agriculture, industry, factories, plants, for a careful attitude to nature and its riches.
He did not equate wealth with money, but believed that " a state is rich when its people are rich ».
The work of Pososhkov reflected the reforming activities of Peter 1.
Topic 1.4. Mercantilism.
The first school of economics was mercantilism, which became widespread in many countries until the end of the 17th century. He expressed the interests of merchant capital, and wealth was identified with gold and silver. The source of wealth was foreign trade. The state was supposed to facilitate the flow of gold and silver from abroad. In its development, mercantilism went through two stages: early and developed.
Early mercantilism- the monetary system, characterized by the concept of monetary balance. Its prominent representative, William Stafford (England). According to this concept, the task of accumulating monetary wealth in the country was solved mainly by administrative measures that ensured strict regulation monetary circulation, foreign trade. Monetarists, considering gold as a treasure, an absolute form of wealth, were looking for ways to inflow it from abroad and keep it inside the country. It was strictly forbidden to export money outside the given state, the activities of foreign merchants were strictly controlled, the import of foreign goods was limited, high duties were established, etc.
Developed mercantilism- manufacturing system, different ways of accumulating wealth. Instead of administrative methods of accumulation, economic methods come to the fore. Mercantilists refused to ban the export of gold outside the country. They outline measures to stimulate foreign trade, which was supposed to ensure a constant flow of gold into the country. The main rule of foreign trade was the excess of exports over imports. To ensure its implementation, the mercantilists took care of the development of manufacturing production, domestic trade, the growth of not only exports, but also imports of goods, the purchase of raw materials abroad, and the rational use of money. A ban was maintained on the export of raw materials, the import of a number of goods, especially luxury goods, was limited, high import duties were set, etc. The mercantilists demanded that the royal government encourage the development of national industry and trade, the production of goods for export, maintain high customs duties, build and strengthen the fleet, and expand external expansion.
Mercantilism in individual countries had its own characteristics:
England: mature mercantilism is represented by T. Men. T. Man was a major businessman of his time, one of the directors of the East India Company. He considered the strict regulation of monetary circulation to be harmful, advocated the free export of coins. His rule: "Sell more to foreign countries than buy from them." Men believed that the ban on the export of money abroad inhibits the demand for British goods, and an excess of money in the country leads to higher prices.
Due to the fact that England has outstripped other countries of the world in its capitalist development, the program of the mercantilists proved to be the most effective here. Its implementation contributed to the creation of conditions for the transformation of England into the first industrial power in the world.
France: A. Montchretien created the work "Treatise of Political Economy", in which he recommended the active intervention of the state in the economy. He considered merchants to be the most useful class, and trade was the main goal of crafts. He advised to strengthen manufactories, create craft schools, improve the quality of products. The doctrine of mercantilism was persistently put into practice in the second half of the 17th century. the period of the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642) and the activities of the Minister of Finance Louis XIV Colbert (1661-1683). Efforts were made to create manufacturing production, conditions that contributed to its growth (granting loans, various benefits to industrialists and merchants, attracting foreign craftsmen, etc.) France built a fleet, created colonial companies, and launched foreign trade activities. With the help of the mercantilist policy, Colbert tried to overcome the socio-economic backwardness of the country, to catch up with England.
Spain: lingered at the stage of monetarism, in accordance with which the export of gold and silver abroad was severely pursued.
Germany: The evolution of mercantilism in Germany, in addition to the factors noted above, was influenced by the political fragmentation of the country. The activities of early mercantilism were combined here with economic policy typical of feudal principalities. They only exacerbated the economic chaos that reigned in the country, generated by fragmentation.
Italy: A. Serra published a "Short Treatise", which reflected the stage of mature mercantilism. A. Serra criticized monetarism. He advocated the development of handicraft production, the encouragement of the industriousness and ingenuity of the population, the development of trade, and the conduct of a favorable economic policy of the government. However, mercantilism did not give results due to the backwardness of the country's socio-economic development.
Russia: mercantilism was very specific. The predominantly agrarian nature of the country posed problems that did not fit into the concept of mercantilism. I. Pososhkov and A. Ordyn-Nashchekin developed a number of reforms that significantly moved Russia forward.
Section 2. Classical economic school.
Topic 2.1. Founders of the classical school.
The classical school is new stage in the development of economic science. Unlike mercantilism, the emphasis is on production as the basis of the economy. Trade is relegated to the background. Two countries took part in the development of the classical direction - England and France. England in the 17th century, France in the 18th century. The founder of this direction in England was W. Petty, in France - P. Boisguillebert. The English classical school considered both agriculture and industry important, the French - agriculture.
W. Petty at first shared the thesis of the mercantilists about the accumulation of gold and silver in the country. He distinguished between natural and market prices. He believed that money expresses a measure of value. The value of a commodity produced by a person in a certain time is equal to the value of the amount of gold and silver that another person can mine, transport and mint coins from it in the same time. Later, he advocated the labor theory of value.
The founder of this trend was P. Boisguillebert. He criticized mercantilism, considering it the culprit of a difficult economic situation countries. Boisguillebert considered money to be the main reason for this state. The only function of money in his opinion is the function of exchange, and the value of a product is created by labor, regardless of whether the product is sold.
Topic 2.2. Physiocratism.
The school of physiocrats was formed in the middle of the 18th century and is translated as "the power of nature." F. Quesnay was the leader of the physiocratic school. In wealth, he sees the material side: exchange and industry cannot create wealth, because trade only moves the product, and industry only transforms the substance without adding anything. The substance grows where nature works. The net income of society is created only in agriculture. In accordance with Quesnay divided society into 3 classes:
Owners - nobility, clergy, king, officials;
Farmers are capitalists and hired workers;
Barren - the commercial and industrial population of the country.
He presented the model of relationships between these classes in the form of an economic table. This model is extremely simplified: it reflects only simple reproduction, i.e. reproduction, repeating from cycle to cycle unchanged.
A. R. J. Turgot completed the teachings of the physiocrats, who brought the most mature form of the physiocratic system. He considered the causes of wage labor, industrial and commercial profits, wages, and so on.
Topic 2.3. English classical school.
The leader of this school is A. Smith. He is the author of the book Studies on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”, which consists of 5 books. Smith reviewed division of labor and showed its impact on the growth of labor productivity.
Money he considered a commodity that can be exchanged for any other commodity. Only gold and silver coins can be in circulation.
He was the first to define cost, as the sum of two types of income: wages, profits and rents.
Capital is the sum of the means of production. It is divided into fixed and variable.
Salary is the amount of money a worker receives for his work.
Profit is the result of the worker's unpaid labor, appropriated by the capitalist.
Rent- the result of the worker's unpaid labor, appropriated by the landowner.
Work can be productive or unproductive. The result of productive labor is a material product, so it is exchanged for capital. The result of unproductive labor is services, so it is exchanged for income.
Profit decreases if the price of one product increases; and does not change if the price of all goods increases.
D. Ricardo supplemented and corrected some of the provisions of the work of A. Smith in the book “ The beginnings of political economy and taxation”, which consists of 32 chapters.
He criticized A. Smith for inaccurate definition cost and believed that value is primary and cannot be determined by income.
He did an analysis monetary circulation and came to the conclusion that not only gold and silver, but also paper money can be in circulation, if their number is limited. An increase in paper money in circulation may lead to an increase in prices.
Salary- this is the price of labor and it is associated with the movement of the working population. It can be natural (equal to the cost of necessary consumer goods) and market (equal to the amount of money received by workers).
Capital and profit he characterizes similarly to Smith, but believes that profit decreases if the price of one product increases; and if the price of all goods increases.
Topic 2.3. Utopian socialism.
Utopian socialism went through 2 stages of development: early (15th century) and late (18th-19th centuries). Utopia - "nowhere", i.e. a place that doesn't exist.
Representatives early utopian socialism were T. More and T. Campanella. T. More is the greatest humanist in England, the right hand of the king, the author of the book "Utopia". In it, he describes a non-existent city in which there is universal equality and happiness. For this book, T. mor was executed. T. Campanella, author of the book "City of the Sun", spent 27 years in casemates. The ideas of this book are very similar to those expressed by T. More. But neither More nor Campanella knew how to achieve such a future.
Representatives late utopian socialism are: A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, R. Owen.
A. Saint-Simon considered consistent historicism, i.e. believed that each subsequent system should be better than the previous one. The feudal system is better than the slave system, the capitalist system is better than the feudal system. But the capitalist system has not justified itself, so it must be replaced by an industrial system. At the present stage, industrialists, and not the bourgeoisie, should be in power. Therefore, a new system is needed - industrialism. In the new society, large-scale industry will be controlled from a single center and function according to a single plan. Private property is preserved, provided that the owners will obey the general plan. The capitalists must voluntarily hand over their funds to the people.
C. Fourier condemns capitalism for the mismatch of interests between the wealthy minority and the impoverished majority. Therefore, a new system is needed, the basis of which will be small self-governing communities of up to 2,000 people. The main activity of the community will be agriculture, and industry will complement it. People will change jobs several times a day. All property will become public. People will constantly change houses, furniture and other things. The day required for the organization of the phalanx will be given by the capitalists, who will become members of the community. The capitalists themselves will become members of the community and will be subject to a common plan.
R. Owen believed that value under capitalism is determined by money, not by labor. Money does not reflect labor costs and workers do not receive true remuneration. Therefore, money must be abolished and replaced by receipts, which will indicate the labor costs of workers, and for which in the "fair exchange bazaar" it will be possible to purchase any, goods of equal value in terms of labor costs. Owen conducted an experiment in one of the factories in Scotland and proved that it is possible to significantly improve the lives of workers. The new system will be based on common labor, common property, equality in rights and duties.
Topic 2.4. Marxist political economy
This doctrine was created by K. Marx with the direct participation of his friend and colleague F. Engels.
Marx proceeded from three scientific sources: the English classical political economy of Smith and Ricardo, the German classical philosophy of Hegel, and utopian socialism. They borrowed the labor theory of value from Smith and Ricardo. The second - the ideas of dialectics and materialism, the third - the concept of class struggle, elements of the sociological structure of society.
When feudalism collapsed and a “free” capitalist society arose, it became clear that this was a new system of exploitation and oppression of the working people. He criticized capitalism, dreamed of destroying it, but could not find a class in society capable of overthrowing the oppressors. The genius of Marx lies in the fact that he was able to see the “locomotives of history” in revolutions earlier than others, he was able to formulate the doctrine of the class struggle. People will always be victims of deception or self-deception in politics if they do not learn from certain phrases, promises, etc. see the interests of certain classes.
The development of the productive forces determines the change in production relations and thus in socio-economic formations. But as capitalism develops its productive forces to colossal proportions, it becomes more and more entangled in contradictions that are insoluble for it. These irreconcilable contradictions between the social character of production and private capitalist appropriation make themselves felt in periodic crises of overproduction, when the capitalists, unable to find solvent demand, are forced to stop production, drive workers out of the gates of enterprises, and destroy the productive forces. It also means that capitalism is fraught with a revolution designed to replace capitalist ownership of the means of production with socialist ownership.
That. communist society must inevitably replace capitalism. Communist society will go through two stages in its development: socialism and communism. At the first stage, private property will disappear, and distribution will be carried out according to work. On the second, commodity-money relations will disappear, and distribution according to work will be replaced by distribution according to needs.
"Capital"
First volume called "", it was published in 1867.
1. Product- has properties: satisfies needs, exchanges, natural properties (signs, characteristics), social properties (relationships between people).
2. Turning money into capital:
C-D-C’ the sale of a commodity for the acquisition of another commodity, i.e. satisfaction of needs. Money in this case is an intermediary.
D-T-D' is the general formula for the movement of capital, i.e. goods are purchased in order to sell them at a higher price. Money in this case is the goal of production.
3. Surplus value production- Value is created by labor. Labor has a dual character: on the one hand, it is concrete labor, as a result of which a specific product is produced, on the other hand, it is abstract labor, i.e. the expenditure of forces, energy, and this makes the products of labor comparable.
4. Fixed and variable capital:
Permanent Capital is the part of capital that does not change its value in the process of production. These are raw materials, materials, etc.
variable capital is the part of capital that changes its value in the process of production. This is work.
5. Rate of surplus value- m. Npr depends on the variable capital: Npr \u003d m / V. Labor is divided into necessary and surplus.
Necessary labor(working time) - part of the day during which the reproduction process takes place, i.e. the worker spends on himself.
Surplus labor(working hours) - outside the necessary working hours, i.e. part of the day during which the worker produces surplus value.
6. Working day length:
The working day cannot fall below the required working time, and cannot exceed 24 hours. The boundaries of the working day are set between these two limits: adults - 15 hours (from 5.30 to 20.30), adolescents - 12 hours, children - 8 hours. Only men work the night shift.
7. Relative surplus value- necessary + surplus labor. Absolute achieved by lengthening the working day. If labor is paid according to the value of labor, then surplus value can be obtained either by an absolute lengthening of the working day, or by increasing labor productivity.
8. The transformation of surplus value into capital:
Surplus value can be converted into capital only because it contains the same elements - labor costs. Surplus value is divided into capital and income, i.e. accumulates.
Second volume is called " Capital circulation process It was published in 1885.
Capital It is value that brings surplus value. This volume deals with industrial capital.
1. Metamorphoses of capital and its circulation:
D-T ... P-T'-D' money is used to purchase goods in the form of labor power and means of production. Then the movement of capital is interrupted and the process of production begins. As a result, a new type of commodity is obtained and exchanged for money of a larger mass, and the movement of capital is resumed. There is added value. That. There are 3 forms of capital - monetary, commodity and production.
2. Fixed and working capital:
Basic- is constantly involved in the production process. negotiable- in one production cycle.
2. production costs- production, storage costs, transport costs.
3. Capital turnover:
Capital turnover time- this is the time from the moment it is advanced into production, until the moment it returns in the same form. Fixed and circulating capital are included only in the production form of capital. The more turns capital makes, the higher the surplus value.
4. Reproduction and circulation of social capital:
Social capital is formed as a result of the interweaving of individual capitals. Social capital - W = C + V + m = K + p. It consists of the production of means of production and the production of means of consumption.
Third volume called " The process of capitalist production as a whole”, was published in 1894 by F. Engels.
1. The capitalist receives profit from the fact that he sold something that he did not pay for. Profit is the excess over the capital advanced. Profit is the converted value of surplus value. Npr \u003d m / V, and profit P \u003d m / C + V. The same surplus value can create more or less profit (depending on the approach of the capitalist).
2. The impact of wages on production prices:
An increase in wages increases production costs and decreases profits. However, if the rate of profit is reduced, then the mass of profit may increase at the expense of the unpaid labor of the workers. If the part of constant capital increases relative to variable capital, then the rate of surplus value will decrease, or the amount of unpaid labor will increase.
3. Trading capital:
It takes 2 forms - commodity-trade and money-trade, i.e. goods are either sold or bought.
4. Loan capital:
With the development of trade, the basis of credit expands, new means of payment arise - bills of exchange. They form trading money. Lending is about earning interest.
5. Land capital- rent:
Differential rent 1- excess profits received from the best plots of land.
Differential rent 2- excess profit received from the best plots of land through capital investment.
Absolute rent- the rent received by all landowners, tk. the worst plots also make a profit.
Fourth volume called " Surplus value theory", it was published in 1905-1910 and is a standalone book.
This volume contains criticism of previous economic teachings - A. Smith, D. Ricardo and others.
Genesis capitalist ground rent: industry destroys labor power, and agriculture destroys the power of the land.
Marx's triune formula: capital - profit, land - rent, labor - wages.
Section 3. Neoclassical direction.
Topic 3.1. The emergence of the neoclassical trend.
The neoclassical direction or marginalism appeared in the middle of the 19th century and is associated with the introduction of the concept of "marginal utility". This made it possible to create a new tool for analyzing economic reality using mathematical methods. Instead of the dynamic problems of the classical school, static problems appeared that allow mathematical formulations and solutions. At the center of this theory is the behavior of an individual consumer who maximizes his utility from the consumption of goods, and an individual producer who maximizes his profit.
The founder of this direction is Austrian school. The leader of this school K. Menger developed " marginal utility table».
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The starting point of the analysis is a person's attitude to goods, which is manifested in the sphere of personal consumption. The subject of analysis is consumer assessments and consumer choice. The value of any good is determined by its ability to satisfy human needs. The value does not depend on the quantity of the benefit, but on the importance of the need that this good satisfies. Benefits are listed horizontally in descending order of utility. Vertical - units of consumption of these goods. At the intersection, each unit of each good is evaluated. He introduced the concepts of "demand price" and "supply price", analyzed the attitude of a person to goods, the value of goods, etc. ABOUT.
Böhm-Bawerk introduced additions to the table - not all benefits can be satisfied in stages, and also singled out objective and subjective value, formulated a market price model, developed a theory of capital as direct and roundabout methods for determining needs, etc.
American school- its leader D. Clark. He formulated 3 universal laws that operate in the economic sphere in any historical era:
1. The law of marginal utility - each class of buyers spends their money first on the most important products, then on less important ones. Those. marginal utility is the utility of the good that a given class can buy with its last unit of money.
2. The law of specific productivity - 4 factors are always involved in production - labor, land, capital and entrepreneurial activity. The owner of the corresponding factor owns his contribution - labor brings wages, land - rent, capital - interest, entrepreneurial activity - profit.
3. The law of diminishing productivity - an increase in any factor of production, while the rest remain unchanged, gives a decreasing increase in production.
Lausanne School- its leaders are L. Walras And In Pareto. L. Walras was the first to develop a closed mathematical model of general economic equilibrium. V. Pareto improved this model and introduced the concept of "preference". The statement that a given good is more useful than another means that a person prefers this good to another. He owns an estimate of the equilibrium, called the "Pareto Optimum" - this is a position in which it is impossible to improve the well-being of at least one subject without compromising the well-being of another.
cambridge school- leader - A. Marshall. He synthesized the ideas of the English classical school and the concept of marginalists. He considers market equilibrium as equality of supply and demand prices. He introduced the concept of price elasticity of demand - it expresses the extent to which the volume of demand increases or decreases with a decrease or decrease in demand. The dynamics of production costs depends on changes in production volumes. Marshall paid much attention to the time factor - in the short term, prices are decisively affected by a change in demand, in the long term - by a change in supply. Marshall's contribution to economic theory is so great that it is called the "Marshallian revolution".
Topic 3.2. Economic thought in Russia in the late 19th early 20th century.
M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky adhered to the social direction, which is based on the theory of distribution. Distribution was depicted by him in the form of a struggle of various social groups for the "sharing" of the social product. The most important distribution category is wages. Its magnitude is regulated, on the one hand, by labor productivity, and on the other, by the strength of the working class. He compared the accumulation of loan capital with the accumulation of steam in a cylinder. M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky was the first to formulate the law of the investment theory of cycles and anticipated Keynes' idea of "savings-investment". The phases of the industrial cycle are determined by the laws of investment.
N. D. Kondratiev worked on the problems of national economic planning, drew up the first plans, conducted market research, studied the objective characteristics and trends of a market economy. He is known to world science as the author of the theory of large cycles of the economic situation. N. D. Kondratiev studied data on European countries and the USA. The observation period was 140 years. At this time, 2.5 large cycles ended. N. D. Kondratiev is the only one who managed to present evidence for the existence of large cycles and they were named after him “Great Kondratiev Waves”.
A. V. Chayanov was the leader of the organizational-production school. The main subject of his research was the peasant economy. He put forward a plan for the reconstruction of the agrarian sector: the transfer of land to the ownership of the working peasantry; the introduction of labor ownership of land; the transfer to the state of the landed estates; introduction of a unified agricultural tax. A. V. Chayanov spoke out against the equalizing allotment of land to the peasants. His major achievement is the theory of differential optima of agricultural enterprises. The optimum is achieved where, other things being equal, the cost of the products obtained will be the lowest, i.e. envy of natural and climatic conditions. Chayanov proposed to carry out the socialization of the land - the destruction of land ownership. This means a revolution in land ownership and possible coexistence with the bourgeois order. He saw the stability of peasant farms in the fact that the peasant does not pursue profit and rent, but strives for economic independence.
V. K. Dmitriev compiled a system linear equations, with the help of which he expressed simultaneous production costs and thus, for the first time in world literature, gave a way to express total costs. He came to the conclusion that the level of socially necessary costs is determined under the worst conditions. He introduced the concept of "technological coefficients of production costs", which formed the basis of the "cost-output" method of V. Leontiev.
E. E. Slutsky adhered to the mathematical and economic direction. One of his important works is "On the theory of a balanced consumer budget", in which he made a number of conclusions about the conditions for a stable consumer budget. Slutsky was the first to raise the question of the need for a special science - praxeology, which would develop the principles of rational behavior of people in various conditions.
L. V. Kantorovich, a Nobel laureate in economics, showed that any economic problems of distribution can be considered as problems of maximizing a certain value under certain restrictions. He created linear programming methods that are convenient for many types of calculations in the economy. He showed the existence of dual estimates in linear programming problems - one cannot simultaneously minimize costs and maximize results.
Section 4. Modern economic theory.
Topic 4.1. institutionalism.
Institutionalism originated at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in the United States. Its founder was T. Veblen. In his Theory of the Leisure Class, he opposed the notion that each individual seeks the greatest profit. A person is not a calculating machine, and in addition to benefits, there are also customs, traditions, mores.
The period of the beginning of the 20th century was marked by the rapid growth of corporations. In this regard, T. Veblen added another group to the 3rd classes of society - technical specialists.
T. Veblen believes that the era of the market economy covers 2 stages:
On the first, property and real power are in the hands of the entrepreneurs;
On the second, there is a split between business and industry. Business is in the hands of the leisure class, which lends its capital rather than investing in production.
In his opinion, the modern economy does not operate on the basis of supply and demand. Large firms are involved in speculative operations, increasing their purchasing power at the expense of credit, and not expanding production. As a result, there are pyramids of credit, there is a recession in business activity, the bankruptcy of many firms, due to the requirements of immediate repayment of loans.
D. Commons proposed the theory of transactions, according to which the transaction was a trinity: conflict, interrelation of interests, conflict resolution.
W. Mitchell was a researcher of economic cycles.
D. Galbraith devoted his attention to the industrial system, corporations, the role of the state, etc. He was the first to substantiate the thesis about the replacement of the power of the market - by the decisions of managers. He considers it necessary to limit the power of corporations, military concerns, military department apparatuses. He developed reforms aimed at strengthening the role of the state; retraining of persons left without work; reduction in military spending, etc.
R. Coase (50s of the 20th century) considered the problem of a “continuous market”, i.e. interaction between state regulation and market economy. He opposed attempts to find market failures and encourage government intervention in the economy.
Topic 4.2. Keynesianism.
Since the mid-1930s, the development of economic theory has been influenced by the theory of D. Keynes. In 1936, D. Keynes' book "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" was published. Keynesianism gained worldwide fame because of the rationale for the need for government intervention in the economy. His theory was formed after the global crisis "The Great Depression" and was a "lifeline" for the economies of many countries. The focus is on 2 problems: demand and unemployment.
Demand theory: before D. Keynes, it was believed that all produced goods would be sold, but D. Keynes believes that a person may not purchase goods, but save his money. D. Keynes identifies 3 ways to regulate demand:
Monetary policy - stimulating demand by lowering the rate of interest and influencing the desire for liquidity,
Budgetary policy - the organization of investments. The lack of private investment must be regulated at the expense of the state,
The policy of protectionism - closing the borders to foreign competitors expands the conditions for domestic production.
The theory of employment and unemployment: with an increase in employment, national income increases, and therefore consumption increases. But consumption is growing more slowly than income, because the propensity to save increases. That. effective demand decreases, and this affects the size of production. The decline in production leads to an increase in unemployment. Keynes identified frictional, voluntary and involuntary unemployment caused by a decrease in demand.
Multiplier theory: investment in any industry entails an increase in employment, income and consumption not only in this industry, but also in industries associated with it. In turn, changes in these industries generate growth in employment, income, and consumption in second-tier industries. There is a multiplier effect. The value of the multiplier depends on the proportion of consumption in income. The main problem should be considered the transformation of the saved part into investments.
Topic 4.3. The modern stage of development of economic doctrines.
Monetarism- appeared in the mid-80s and became a battlefield between the followers of D. Keynes and the monetarists, whose leader was M. Friedman. Monetarists argue that government intervention in the economy according to Keynesian recipes is harmful in the long run. the action of market regulators is blocked. The regulatory role of the state should be limited to the sphere of monetary circulation. The condition for economic stability is the constant, gradual pumping of the money supply into circulation.
neoliberalism has 3 centuries of history and is in constant combat with the concept of state intervention in the economy. By the end of the 19th century, he lost ground, but by the 30-40s of the 20th century, he again gained strength in the person of L. Von Mises and F. von Hayek. L. von Mises considered the division of labor, private property and exchange to be the foundations of civilization. And the regulated economy is turning into a field for the arbitrariness of state officials. F. von Hayek believes that only the market is able to quickly respond to fluctuations in supply and demand. And central planning will always be late. In some studies, their direction is called neoliberalism. But most scholars refer to the other branch as neoliberalism. economic liberalism, whose leader was V. Eucken, and one of the representatives - L. Erhard. The function of the state, in their view, is the role of the judge to ensure that the rules are followed.
Supply theory appeared in the late 70s and 80s. A large role in the development of this theory belongs to the American Enterprise Institute. Fluctuations in economic growth rates, unemployment and inflation, in their opinion, were provoked by an increase in government spending. In practice, this theory has not justified itself.
rational expectations theory it is a product of the latest evolution of neoclassicism. This school was formed in the USA. Rational expectations are formed on the basis of all available information about the current state and prospects for the development of the economy. However, this theory turned out to be divorced from real processes.
Literature:
1. « History of Economic Thought". Study guide. Ministry of Defense Shmarlovskaya G.A., Tur A.N., Lebedko E.E. etc. New Knowledge LLC 2000.
2. "History of the World Economy". Lecture notes. Bor M.Z. Business and Service 2002.
3. "History of Economic Thought". Lecture course. Levita R.Ya. Catallaxy with the participation of CJSC "KnoRus", 2003.
4. "Ancient bookkeeping: what it was." Malkova T.N. Finance and Statistics, 1995.
5. "History of Economics and Economic Doctrines". Educational and methodical manual of the Ministry of Defense. Surin A.I. Finance and Statistics, 2001.
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Abstract on the history of economic doctrines
Why study the history of economics?
In order to better understand the logic and structure of modern economic thinking (after all, modern economic theory consists of several theories that reflect different eras and cultural traditions, different types scientific thinking).
Knowledge of the history of economic science makes it possible to compare the judgments of contemporaries with those that have already taken place, to give them their own adequate assessment.
The history of economic science is part of the treasury of world culture, knowledge of it contributes to a more complete and real perception of reality.
The history of economic science can be presented on the basis of two approaches:
Relativistic the approach considers the economic theories of the past from the point of view of their historical conditionality;
Absolutist considers the development of theory as a continuous progress from erroneous judgments to truth, in the limit - to absolute truth.
Economics has come a long way from economic thought (in the ancient world) to economic teachings (in the ancient period and the Middle Ages) and further to economic theory.
The emergence of economic thought
Ancient documents fixing economic relations, it could be considered laws.
ancient babylon .
The laws of King Hammurabi (1792 - 1750 BC) - slave relations, money circulation, debt obligations, rent, wages for mercenaries.
ancient india .
" Laws of Manu" (VI century BC) - rights and property relations, in later treatises - a description of the state and economic structure, rules of sale, hiring workers, pricing.
Ancient China .
The works of Confucius (551-479 BC) - views on physical and mental labor, slave relations; treatise "Guan-tzu" (IV-III centuries BC) - about trade, taxes, agriculture and crafts, about finances;
the teachings of Xun-tzu (313-238 BC) - about taxation, against "exorbitant requisitions at outposts and markets that hinder exchange."
Economic doctrines of the world of antiquity
Ancient Greece .
Xenophon (430-355 BC) - "On income", "Economics" - launched the scientific economy. He divided the economy into sectors (agriculture, handicrafts, trade), for the first time he spoke about the expediency of the division of labor.
Plato (427-347 BC) developed ideas about the division of labor, about the specialization of labor and about the features different types activities.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) - "Politics", "Ethics" - explores the economic. processes to discover patterns. The main direction of economic development should be the naturalization of economic life (natural economy as an ideal is a closed economic system, the labor of slaves is used, wealth is the totality of what is produced in this economy, the way to achieve wealth is the capture of new territories and slaves with the subsequent organization of their labor). The development of exchange and trade is contrary to the ideal type of development, although they are an integral part of life. Aristotle deeply analyzed monetary processes and phenomena. It was thanks to the development of this problematic, which Aristotle himself considered a dead end in economic development, that his name entered the history of economic development. science as one of its founders and the first scientist-economist.
Ancient Rome .
The problems of agriculture, organization of labor of slaves, land ownership were paid attention to:
Varro (116-27 BC) - "About agriculture";
Mark Porcius Cato (234-149 BC) - "About agriculture";
Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC);
Pliny the Elder (123-79 BC) - "Natural History";
Columella (I century BC) - "About agriculture" - an agricultural encyclopedia of antiquity.
Economic thought in the 1st millennium AD Economy and religion
The transition from a slave-owning system to a feudal one, from a pagan religion to monotheism, from justifying slavery to condemning it. There are no revolutionary changes. The strongest impact on the economy the church provides the views. The commandments are interpreted as rules of economic behavior.
The Bible testifies that economic truths were known to people in ancient times. The books of the Old Testament contain advice, wishes, parting words of an economic nature. The book of Nehemiah directly mentions taxes and pledges. You can also find instructions from the arsenal of forms and methods of managing the economy.
gospel ( New Testament) played a huge role in the formation of the code of economic morality, opposition to the principles of money-grubbing, bare gain, although it does not contain systematized views on the economy itself. The books of the New Testament contain ideas close to socialist and even communist.
In Islam, too, one can find confirmation of how religious beliefs affected the economy. principles. So, Mohammed preached the spirit of moderation, non-worship of wealth, mercy; established the rules for the inheritance of property and the distribution of funds received in the form of zakat (this is a kind of taxation - compulsory alms).
Mercantilism
The term (from Italian mercante - merchant, merchant) introduced English. economist Adam Smith. This is an economic system. looks, cat. was widespread in Europe in the second millennium AD. Representatives of mercantilism - English. William Stafford and Thomas Mann, fr. Antoine Montchretien, sc. John Lo, Italian Gaspar Scaruffi and Antonio Gevonesi - considered money (at that time it was precious metals) as the main component of material well-being. The source of wealth is foreign trade. The concept of an active trade balance was introduced - the excess of exports over imports. In addition, mercantilism for the first time determined the administrative functions of the state by economic policy leading to the enrichment of the nation, is protectionism(support for domestic merchants on foreign markets, restrictions for foreigners in the domestic market).
Early mercantilism originated before the era of the great geographical discoveries, and its central idea was the idea of "monetary balance". Economical Government policy during this period was of a pronounced fiscal nature. Successful collection of taxes could only be ensured through the creation of a system in which private individuals were prohibited from exporting precious metals outside the state. Foreign merchants were obliged to spend all the proceeds received on the purchase of local goods, the issue of money was declared a state monopoly. Outcome: the depreciation of money, the rise in prices for goods, the weakening of the economic position of the nobility.
Late mercantilism adhered to the idea of a trade balance. It was believed that the state becomes richer, the greater the difference between the value of exported and imported goods. Therefore, the export of finished products was encouraged and the export of raw materials and the import of luxury goods were limited, and the development of intermediary trade was stimulated, for which the export of money abroad was allowed. High import duties were set, export premiums were paid, and privileges were granted to trading companies.
Outcome: confrontation between countries, mutual restrictions on trade, the decline of industries focused on domestic markets.
Already in the XVIII century. logically completed mercantilism became a brake on economic development and came into conflict with the real needs of economic systems in Europe. Many concepts and principles of this doctrine are widely applied in modern theory and practice.
Physiocrats
The term (power of nature) was introduced by Adam Smith. The founder of the doctrine was Francois Quesnay (1694-1774), the most prominent representatives - Victor de Mirabeau (1715-1789), Dupont de Neymour (1739-1817), Jacques Turgot (1727-1781). The Physiocrats considered wealth not money, but "products of the earth"; the source of society's wealth is agricultural production, not trade and industry. The increase in wealth comes from the "net product" (this is the difference between agricultural output and the output used to produce it during the year). The idea of government non-intervention in the natural course of economic life.
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) - "Economic table" (1758) - a table of the circulation of good resources. Quesnay divides society into three main classes - farmers, landowners and the "barren class" (not employed in agriculture). The process of distribution and redistribution of a pure product goes through the following stages:
farmers rent land from owners for money, grow crops;
owners buy products from farmers and industries. products from artisans;
farmers buy prom. goods from industrialists;
industrialists buy agricultural goods from farmers -> money for renting land.
Jacques Turgot (1727-1781) attempted the practical implementation of the physiocratic concept. He carried out a series of reforms aimed at reducing the role of the state in the economic life of France. In-kind duties were replaced by a monetary tax, state expenses were reduced, guild corporations and guilds were abolished, taxation of the nobility was introduced (they did not pay before). Turgot developed the teachings of Quesnay in his work "Reflections on the Creation and Distribution of Wealth" (1776). According to Turgot, a pure product can be produced not only in agriculture, but also in industry; the class structure of society is more complex - within each class there is differentiation. In addition, he laid the scientific basis for the analysis of wages of hired workers; formulated the "law of diminishing land product", cat. In modern economic theory is interpreted as the law of diminishing productivity.
Although the practice of the Physiocrats was unsuccessful, the theoretical contribution of this school cannot be overestimated.
classical school
The trend originated in the 17th century. and blossomed in the XVIII - early. 19th century The classics put labor as a creative force and value as the embodiment of value at the center of their research, thereby laying the foundation for the labor theory of value. They also developed an idea of surplus value, profit, taxes, land rent. The source of wealth is the sphere of production.
William Petty (1623-1687) - the first representative and progenitor of the classical school, he owns scientific developments in the field of taxation and customs duties.
Adam Smith (1723-1790) - father of economics - "Studies on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776) - the wealth of a nation is embodied in the products it consumes. The ratio between the amount of products consumed and the size of the population depends on the productivity of labor (which in turn is determined by the division of labor and the level of capital accumulation) and the proportion of the division of society into a productive and unproductive class. The higher this ratio, the higher the level of material well-being. THAT. the growth of wealth depends on the level of accumulation of capital and how it is used. Smith was a supporter of the mechanism of market self-regulation and the policy of laissez-faire on the part of the state. He paid the main attention to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume.
David Riccardo (1772-1823) - "Principles of political economy and taxation" (1817) - made a significant contribution to the development and refinement of various specific problems of economic theory. He proposed the theory of "comparative costs" (comparative advantages), which became the theoretical basis for the policy of free trade (free trade). The bottom line: in the absence of restrictions on foreign trade, the country's economy should specialize in the production of less expensive goods - this will lead to efficient use of resources and provide a higher volume of production.
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) - "Experience on the law of population" (1798) - touching on demographic problems, tried to identify patterns of population change. By endowing people with the ability for unlimited reproduction, nature, through economic processes, imposes restrictions on the human race that regulate population growth.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) - "Principles of Political Economy" (1848) - in the XIX century. encyclopedic textbook on economic theory. Mill systematized the works of his predecessors, taking into account the new level of knowledge, and also laid the foundations for a number of fundamental concepts and provisions, expressed many valuable ideas.
In the second half of the XIX century. in economic theory, two directions stood out - the direction of economic analysis, which later received a generalized name Marxism, and the so-called margin theory, which then turned into the largest neoclassical school.
Utopian socialism and communism
Socialist and communist ideas have matured in society since the 16th century. But the most fertile ground for them was to late XVIII- the beginning of the 19th century, when the unseemly features of the existing capitalist system were fully manifested: the accumulation of capital in the hands of a few, the deepening of private property, the polarization of wealth, the plight of the proletarians.
Many scientists advocated utopian socio-political and economic systems based on the principles of collectivism, justice, equality, and brotherhood.
Utopianism originated in the 15th century. Thomas More wrote "Utopia", containing a description of the ideal system. Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639) imagined a "City of the Sun" that had an ideal community. Gabriel Bonnot de Mably (1709-1785) spoke about social justice, considering large-scale agriculture to be the main economic evil. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - defended the right of the people to the forcible elimination of injustice in his essay "Discourses on the beginning and foundations of inequality ...". The Swiss Jean Charles Leonard Simond de Sismondi (1773-1842) saw in political economy the science of improving the social mechanism for the sake of people's happiness; introduced a new understanding of the term "proletariat" as a poor, oppressed layer of workers.
Utopian socialism. Predicting the death of the capitalist system, the socialists insisted on the need to change public system in the name of creating a new social formation (NOF). Main ideas: high security of people in a team, equality, brotherhood, centralized leadership, planning, world balance. The socialists proposed to eliminate the market system, replacing it with total state planning.
Claude Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825) - NOF - industrialism, bourgeoisie and proletarians form a single class; compulsory labor, unity of science and production, scientific planning of the economy, distribution of the social product.
Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - NOF - harmony, saw the "phalanx" as the primary cell of the future society, in the cat. combined industrial and agricultural production; mental and physical labor are not opposed.
Robert Owen (1771-1858) - NOF - communism, proposed the creation of self-governing "villages of community and cooperation", devoid of classes, exploitation, private property, etc. Building a system in a peaceful way, by spreading the ideas of equality and social justice.
Communism (scientific socialism).
Karl Marx (1818-1883) - developed his own system of views on theoretical economics (political economy). Relying mainly on the classical school, he, nevertheless, significantly changed many of its provisions. It hardly has competitors among theoretical economists. He developed a number of special theoretical issues characteristic of the economy of that period - the theory of the economic cycle, income, wages, simple and expanded production, land rent.
His theory is most fully expounded in "Capital" (1867,1885,1894). The labor costs that determine the magnitude of value are not individual, but socially necessary, i.e. equal to the number of hours of working time, cat. required on average for the production of goods at a given level of development of production. THAT. only hired labor power (the proletariat) produces value. Excess value (surplus value) is appropriated by the owner of capital - the entrepreneur, the capitalist - this is how the process of gradual accumulation of capital proceeds, which is actually the result of the appropriation of the fruits of someone else's labor. When making decisions, the capitalist is guided by the maximization of the amount of surplus value. The one who extracts the maximum possible surplus value by exploiting hired labor survives in the world of business, the rest lose their competitive positions. THAT. both the proletariat and the capitalists are hostages of the system. The process of functioning of the capitalist economy leads to the collapse of the entire system.
The only way left social revolution on a global scale liquidate the system of private property as the main hindrance to development, go over to the public regulation of economic life on the basis of the principles of equality of all people and justice.
Marx's ideas were supplemented and somewhat revised by Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) and V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). This theory was called communism, or Marxism-Leninism. Marx and Engels wrote the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" (1948) - the abolition of private ownership of land and means of production, the introduction of collective property, the centralization of money, capital, transport in the hands of society, the same duty of labor for all, economic planning.
The successor of Lenin's ideas I.V. Stalin, apparently, finally broke with the idea of a world revolution, reformulated the problem for the gradual creation of a communist society on the scale of a separate state, relying on its own forces.
In the works of the founders of Marxism there is no more or less detailed study of the question of the specific mechanisms of the economic functioning of a socialist or communist economic system.
marginalism
The school belongs to "pure theory". Representatives of marginalism (from the French marginal - marginal) are the Austrians K. Menger, E. Behm-Bawerk, the Englishman W. Jevons, the American. J.B. Clark, Swiss V. Pareto.
The value of a commodity is established not in production, but only in the process of exchange, and depends on subjective psychological features the perception of the value of the product by the buyer (if I do not need it, I am not ready to pay a high price). The usefulness of a product depends on the system of needs. The system of needs is ranked according to the criterion of need. The law of diminishing marginal utility (each next product of this type has less and less utility for the consumer) has become the fundamental principle of marginalism. The price depends on the marginal utility (PP) and should fall as the stock of goods increases.
Two options for margin analysis - cardinalism(PP can be measured in units) and ordinalism(it is enough to measure only the relative values of the PP of different goods).
In theory, but not in practice, this principle is quite productive. For the first time, an attempt was made to present the basic economic ideas with the help of a mathematical apparatus and to give science a strictly demonstrative form. Marginalism has made a great contribution to the development of science, stimulating interest in the analysis of consumer psychology, developing and applying a number of mathematical constructions.
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism, or neoclassical synthesis, united the positions of the classics and the marginalists.
Alfred Marshall (1942-1924) - "Principles of Political Economy" (1890) - founder of the trend. I used a functional approach (all economic phenomena are not in a cause-and-effect relationship - this is the principle of causality, but in a functional relationship). The problem is how the price is determined, but how it changes and what functions it performs. The task of ek. science to study the actual mechanism of the market economy and understand the principles of its functioning. The essence of the market mechanism, according to Marshall: the transaction price is the result of an agreement between the seller and the buyer. The seller's price in its minimum value is the cost of goods; the buyer's price at its maximum is equal to the marginal utility of the good. As a result of bargaining, a certain equilibrium price is established, which becomes the price of the goods. THAT. The seller's price is formed according to classical laws, and the buyer's price is formed according to the marginal canon. What is new is that price is the result of the quantitative relationship between supply and demand in a given market. The transaction price and the amount of demand are inversely related: the higher the price, the lower the demand; with the value of supply - in direct proportion: the higher the price, the higher the offer. When supply and demand are equal, the price becomes the equilibrium market price.
The market or price mechanism is capable of adjusting the level of prices in the markets without outside interference. Disruption of the market mechanism may occur due to government intervention, as well as monopolistic trends in the market, when the seller, regardless of the buyer, forms market prices.
Joan Robinson, E. Chamberlin - studied the pricing mechanism in the market depending on the degree of its monopolization; proposed the theory of imperfect competition.
Closely adjacent to neoclassicism is the so-called. NEOLIBERALISM. The basic principle was laid down by A. Smith: minimizing state impact on the economy, providing manufacturers, entrepreneurs, traders with the maximum possible freedom of action.
Friedrich Hayek (1899-1992) - an ardent supporter of economic liberalization, free market relations; Nobel laureate 1974 He devoted his works to proving the superiority of the market system in a mixed and even more centralized "command" economy. He attached great importance to the mechanism of market self-regulation through free market prices. "The Road to Slavery" (1944) - any rejection of the economic. freedom of market pricing will inexorably lead to dictatorship and economics. slavery.
Ludwig von Erhard - developed methods for the practical application of neoliberal ideas to economic systems - "Welfare for All" (1956) - developed the concept of a market economy and built his own model of a consistent transition to such an economy, based on the idea of adaptation to the emerging situation.
Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950) - "The Theory of Economic Development" (1912) - free enterprise is the main driving force in the modern economy. The scientist became a harbinger of innovation in the economy, considering the decisive factor in its dynamics - renewal (the emergence of new tools of production, technological processes, materials, raw materials, the development of new markets). He believed that interest in the cause, the desire for success, the will to win, the joy of creativity play a huge role.
Keynesianism
In the main industrialized countries of the world, there was an absolute drop in production, rising unemployment, massive bankruptcies of firms and general discontent. Communist and national socialist ideas began to spread in the world, predicting the collapse of the capitalist system. The neoclassical doctrine did not offer recipes for improving the situation, rejecting the very formulation of the question of a prolonged crisis in a market economy and advising not to interfere in this process.
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) - "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936) - substantiated the need and identified specific areas of regulatory impact on the economy by the state. He stated his theory in extremely heavy language, without the slightest attempt to make his text understandable to the public. According to Keynes, the laws of macro- and microeconomics do not coincide (the production-supply of a single product can increase constantly while the production capabilities of the economy as a whole are limited by labor resources). For the first time, I noticed that the average level of income of citizens in developed countries is much higher than the minimum required level, and with income growth, there is a tendency to save rather than consume. THAT. demand consists only of consumer expenditures of the population, its total value falls the faster, the faster incomes grow. If savings depend on income, then investments ultimately depend on the price of money, bank interest rates on loans. If the amount of investment exceeds the amount of savings, then inflation occurs, otherwise - unemployment. State economic policy should be aimed at maintaining sustainable solvent demand. Keynes described acceleration effect- public investment revitalizes business activity through increased private investment in related projects; multiplier effect growth in supply and demand (one pulls the other); took a different look at the role of the factor of thrift in the process of eq. development.
The main task of the state is to maintain macroeconomic balance through the impact on aggregate demand. Keynesianism has become the theoretical basis of the system of state counter-cyclical regulation. The proposed concept is effective in practical terms, but does not always make it possible to cope with inflation and unemployment.
Economic theories of the postwar period
After the Second World War, Keynesianism took the dominant position in economic theory. But already in the 50s and 60s. the basic postulates have been refuted or questioned by a number of new schools and trends.
>> MONETARISM - a theory based on ideas about the decisive influence of the money supply on prices, inflation and the course of economic processes. Therefore, monetarists reduce the management of the economy to state control over money supply, issuance of money.
Milton Friedman - Nobel Laureate 1976 - "The Monetary History of the United States 1867-1960." (together with A. Schwartz) - in long-term periods, major changes in the bank account are associated with the money supply and its movement. All major eq. shocks are explained by the consequences of monetary policy, and not by the instability of the market eq-ki. The demand for money is the most important driver of eq. Rejection of social programs as an inefficient investment. The huge role of freedom; the state should intervene as little and as carefully as possible in market relations (because the results of intervention are unpredictable in the long run).
THEORY OF SUPPLY ECONOMY (A. Laffer, J. Gilder) - it is necessary to stimulate the activation of product supply, and not subject aggregate demand to state regulation. Deregulation (flexibilization) will cause markets to regain their efficiency and respond by increasing output. THAT. it is necessary to recreate the classical mechanism of capital accumulation and to revive the freedom of private enterprise. Specific measures are anti-inflationary: lowering tax rates on personal income and corporate profits, reducing the state budget deficit by cutting government spending, and a consistent policy of privatizing state property. Based on this theory, they entered world history as conservative reformers: M. Thatcher, R. Reagan, K. Tanaka.
THE THEORY OF RATIONAL EXPECTATIONS (J. Muth, T. Lucas - N. l. 1996, L. Repping) - began to develop only in the 70s. Consumers make decisions about current and future consumption based on forecasts of the future level of prices for commodities. Consumers strive to maximize utility and have learned to adapt to changes in the economy (they are able to predict them), their rational behavior nullifies the effectiveness of state policy in eq. areas. Therefore, the government must create stable, predictable rules for market consumption, abandoning the Keynesian type of discrete stabilization policy.
INSTITUTIONALISM - social institutions (state, trade unions, large corporations) decisively influence the economy. The direction is based on the works of Thornston Veblen.
John Kenneth Galbraith - the processes of economic organization and management come to the fore. The decisive role in management belongs to the technostructure - the layer of managers, the cat. Guided by superclass interests. He sees no obstacles to the merger, convergence of the capitalist and socialist systems. This idea is supported by prominent economists Walt Rostow (USA) and Jan Tinbergen (Nobel laureate, Netherlands).
NEW INSTITUTIONALISM - developed in the last quarter of the 20th century, based on neoclassical theory; presented by the works of Nobel Prize winners R. Coase, D. North, D. Buchanan.
Economic thought in Russia
Russian scientists have contributed to the development of certain issues of economic science.
XVIIcentury - the formation of the all-Russian market, the emergence of manufactories.
A. Ordin-Nashchokin (1605-1680) - advocated for the strengthening of the centralized state, developed a program for the implementation of the econ. Russia's policy, wrote the "New Trade Charter", aimed at protecting Russian trading people.
I.T. Pososhkov (1652-1726) - "The Book of Poverty and Wealth" (1724). How to increase wealth? - to attract the entire able-bodied population, to work "at a profit", cost-effectively, to follow the principle of the strictest economy. The primary task of the state is to take care of the welfare of the people. He called to export from Russia not raw materials, but manufactured goods; do not import products, cat. can be produced independently; maintain a balance between import and export. He advocated the industrial development of Russia. Based on the legitimacy of serfdom, he recommended limiting peasant duties and assigning land plots to peasants. He proposed to replace the poll tax with a land tax, advocated the introduction of tithes in favor of the church.
XVIII - XIX VV.
V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) - "The idea of the merchants and crafts" - supported the development of industry, trade, merchants in Russia, advocated a policy of protectionism.
M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765)
N.S. Mordvinov (1754-1845), M.M. Speransky (1772-1839) - representatives of the Russian classical school; economic program of the advanced part of the Russian nobility.
A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) - the stimulating role of trade for industry. development of Russia; about the types of prices and their relationship with utility; on the types of contracts in commercial transactions; about the stimulating and discouraging role of taxation; on the content of the sale, purchase, exchange, service, assignment, loan, lottery, redemption, bargaining; about loans, interest and their rate.
A.A. Chuprov (1874-1926) - the founder of Russian statistics; author of works on the problems of political economy, economic statistics, agriculture, money circulation and prices.
Marxist ideas of scientific socialism were analyzed and discussed
M.A. Bakunin (1814-1876), G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), P.B. Struve (1870-1944), V.I. Lenin (1870-1924).
XXcentury.
M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky (1865-1919) - the first to proclaim the need to combine the labor theory of value with the theory of marginal utility. He made the greatest contribution to the theory of markets and crises, analysis of the development of capitalism and the formation of socialism, and the development of the social foundations of cooperation.
V.A. Bazarov (1874-1939), E.A. Preobrazhensky (1886-1937) - refers to academic economists and practitioners who tried to build a theory of a socialist planned economy, based on the possibility of interaction between a planned and market economy.
A.V. Chayanov (1888-1937) - a representative of the organizational and production direction in the Russian economy. thoughts, theorist of family-peasant economy. Over 200 scientific works. His scientific ideas about the development of the peasant economy in Russia, about cooperation, diverged from the Stalinist guidelines for the forced collectivization of agriculture.
N.D. Kondratiev (1892-1938) - known in the world economy as one of the creators of the theory of large cycles, long waves. Conducted major research in the field of economic dynamics, conjuncture, planning. In 1927 sharply criticized the draft five-year plan, defending the idea that long-term plans should contain not specific quantitative indicators, but general directions of development.
V.S. Nemchinov (1894-1964) - known for his work in the field of statistics and mathematical modeling of economic processes. "Statistics as a Science" (1952). A significant part of his research is devoted to the problem of the development of productive forces and the analysis of economic phenomena using mathematical methods.
L.V. Kantorovich (1912-1986) - Nobel Prize winner in economics in 1975 (together with the American T.Ch. Koopmans), creator of linear programming. He laid the foundations of the mathematical theory of optimal planning and use of resources. His work is used in macroeconomic research.
A.I. Anchishkin (1933-1987) - known for his work in macroeconomic forecasting.
Economics is clearly lagging behind the practical demands of modern times, but, nevertheless, it is moving forward, enriching humanity with new theoretical and applied knowledge in economics. Nobel Prize in Economics has been awarded annually since 1961. New currents of economic thought are developing, designed to more fully and deeper explain the observed and anticipate future economic events.
M.: 2002. - 784 p.
The paper examines the history of economic thought in the 19th and 20th centuries. with an emphasis on current trends, from marginalism to the latest concepts that are not covered in the literature. An attempt is made to analyze the development of economic science in the interrelation of its various directions, taking into account the methodological, philosophical and social aspects of these theories, Russian economic thought in line with the European one.
The authors tried to select from the concepts that existed in the past those that had the greatest influence on modern views, as well as to show the diversity of approaches to solving the same problems of economic science and to formulate the principles in accordance with which these problems were selected.
The textbook is intended for students, as well as for graduate students and teachers of economic universities.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3
Introduction 5
Development of economic thought: historical context 7
Section I FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE FIRST SCHOOLS 11
Chapter 1 The world of economy in the minds of pre-capitalist eras 12
1. What is the economy? 13
2. Economy and chrematistics 15
3. Economics in the religious worldview 18
Chapter 2 Crystallization of scientific knowledge: XVI-XVIII centuries 28
1. First empirical generalizations 29
2. Mercantilism 32
Chapter 3 The Formation of the Classical School of Political Economy 42
1. The mechanism of the market, or the idea of the "invisible hand" 44
2. The theory of production, or the secret of the wealth of nations 48
Chapter 4 The Classical School: The Theory of Value and Distribution 57
1. The Wealth of Nations: Drivers of Growth 57
2. Theory of value 60
3. David Ricardo on rent and the future of capitalism 70
Chapter 5 Classical School: Macroeconomic Theories 75
1. Money and product 75
2. Say's Law 81
3. Discussions about money and credit 89
Chapter 6 Classical School: Ideological Versions 95
1. The split of liberalism 96
2. Critics of Capitalism 105
Chapter 7 The economic theory of K. Marx 110
1. The principle of historicism 111
2. Continuation of the classical tradition 113
3. Political economy - the science of industrial relations 125
Chapter 8 The Historical School in Political Economy 138
1. "Isms 138
2. Friedrich List - geopolitical economist 140
3. "Old" historical school 147
4. "New" historical school: historical and ethical direction 148
5. The "young" historical school: in search of the "spirit of capitalism" 151
Chapter 9 Social economy: the origins of modern ideas about the goals and ways of reforming the economy and socio-economic relations 160
1. Social economy and economic science 160
2. French Solidarism and German Katheder Socialism 163
3. Henry George: Socio-Economic Issues Through the Lens of Land Ownership 167
4. Some Aspects of the Social Doctrine of Catholicism 171
Section II THE BEGINNING OF THE HISTORY OF MODERN ECONOMIC THOUGHT: MARGINALISM 175
Chapter 10 Marginalist Revolution. 175
general characteristics 176
1. Methodological principles of marginalism 178
2. Marginalist theory of value and its advantages 180
3. How did the Marginal Revolution 181
4. Causes and consequences of the marginalist revolution 184
Chapter 11 Austrian School 186
1. Methodological features of the Austrian school 186
2. The Doctrine of Benefits and Exchange by Menger and Böhm-Bawerk 188
3. Wieser's opportunity cost theory and imputation 194
4. Böhm-Bawerk's theory of capital and interest 197
5. Dispute over methods 201
Chapter 12 The English Marginalists: Jevons and Edgeworth 203
1. Jevons' utility theory 205
2. Jevons' exchange theory 206
3. Jevons' labor supply theory 209
4. Jevons chain 210
5. Edgeworth's exchange theory 210
Chapter 13 General Economic Equilibrium Theory 214
1. Leon Walras and his place in the history of economic thought; main works 214
2. General equilibrium model including production; the problem of the existence of a solution and the process of "tatonnement" 219
3. General equilibrium theory in the 20th century: contributions by A. Wald, J. von Neumann, J. Hicks, C. Arrow, and J. Debre 224
4. Macroeconomic aspect of the general equilibrium model 231
Chapter 14 Welfare Economics 237
1. General ideas about the subject 237
2. Modern approaches to the definition of a public good. Pareto Optimal 241
3. Pigou's contribution to the development of welfare theory: the concepts of the national dividend and market imperfections; the principles of state intervention 243
4. Fundamental welfare theorems. Optimality and control: the problem of market socialism 246
5. Attempts to solve the problem of matching optimal states 249
6. A new look at the problem of intervention 251
Chapter 15 Alfred Marshall's contributions to economics 255
1. Marshall's place in the history of economic thought 256
2. Method of partial equilibrium 259
3. Utility and demand analysis 260
4. Cost and supply analysis 265
5. Equilibrium price and the influence of the time factor 266
6. Elements of welfare theory 269
Chapter 16 In Search of a "Money Economy" Model: K. WixelliI. Fisher 272
1. Knut Wicksell - theoretical economist and publicist 274
2. The concept of a cumulative process 277
3. The theory of general equilibrium and the concept of interest by I. Fischer 281
4. I. Fisher's theory of money 284
Chapter 17 The Marginal Theory of Income Distribution: J.B. Clark, F.G. Wicksteed, C. Wicksell 290
1. Background 290
2. The theory of marginal productivity 291
3. The problem of product exhaustion 296
Chapter 18 Theories of the Entrepreneurial Function and Profit 299
1. Entrepreneurial profit - factorial or residual income? 299
2. Entrepreneurship as bearing the burden of risk or uncertainty: R. Cantillon, I. Tyunen, F. Knight 300
3. Entrepreneurship as the coordination of factors of production: J.-B. Sei 304
4. Entrepreneurship as innovation: I. Schumpeter 305
5. Entrepreneurship as arbitrage deals: I. Kirtsner 309
Chapter 19 American Institutionalism 312
1. Dichotomies of T. Veblen 313
2. Statistical institutionalism of W.K. Mitchell 320
3. Legal institutionalism J.R. Commons 322
4. Renewed institutionalism J.K. Galbraith 326
Section III RUSSIAN THOUGHT FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SOVIET PERIOD 330
Chapter 20 Russian Variations of the First Schools of Political Economy 331
1. Russian mercantilism 331
2. Physiocracy in Russia 337
3. "Two Opinions on Foreign Trade": Free Trade and Protectionism 338
4. Classical political economy in the assessment of liberal and revolutionary Westernism 340
Chapter 21 Economic Romanticism 344
1. The Question of the Peasant Community: Slavophilism and "Russian Socialism" 344
2. Raznochintsy intelligentsia and ideologization of political economy 348
3. The labor theory of value and "capitalist pessimism" 351
4. The concept of "people's production" 355
Chapter 22 "Legal Marxism" and Revisionism 359
1. Marxism as a doctrine of Russia's capitalist development 359
2. The national market controversy: a critique of populism 361
3. The Value Controversy: A Critique of Marxism 366
4. The rise of revisionism and its penetration into Russia 368
5. Agrarian question 370
Chapter 23 The Theory of Finance Capital and Imperialism 374
1. Leninism-Marxism without revisionism 374
2. The theory of finance capital and imperialism 377
3. The concept of "material preconditions for socialism" 381
Chapter 24 Ethical and social direction: M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and S.N. Bulgakov 384
1. Russian economic thought at the turn of the century 384
2. M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky: ethical principle and economic theory 390
3. S.N. Bulgakov: in search of a Christian economic worldview 400
Chapter 25 Formation of the Doctrine of a Planned Economy 410
1. Marxism about the scientifically planned society 410
2. The project of "general organizational science 416
3. One-Factory Model and Its Adjustments 421
Chapter 26 Economic Debates in the 1920s on the Nature of the Planned Economy 427
1. Market, plan, balance 427
2. "Genetics" and "teleology" in discussions about the methods of constructing economic plans 433
Chapter 27 Organizational and Production School 440
1. Krug A.V. Chayanov: agronomists - cooperators - theorists 440
2. Statics and dynamics of labor peasant economy 444
3. The tragedy of "liquidation 452
Chapter 28 Economic Views of N.D. Kondratiev 458
1. Economic science at a turning point 458
2. a brief description of scientific heritage of Kondratiev. Methodological approach to the general theory of economic dynamics 461
3. The theory of long waves and the discussion around it 466
4. Problems of regulation, planning and forecasting 473
Section IV THE PRESENT STAGE: FROM KEYNS TO THE PRESENT 479
Chapter 29 J.M. Keynes: a new theory for a changed world 481
1. Significance of the ideas of J.M. Keynes for Modern Economics 481
2. The main stages of life, scientific and practical activities 483
3. Moral-philosophical position and economic ideas 487
4. From the Quantity Theory of Money to the Monetary Theory of Production 490
5. "General theory of employment, interest and money": methodological, theoretical and practical innovations 495
6. Keynes' theory and its interpretation by J. Hicks 504
7. Development and rethinking of the legacy of Keynes 507
Appendix 1 Responses to the "General Theory" 514
Appendix 2 Phillips Curve 516
Annex 3 Study of the type of functions of the ISLM 517 type model
Chapter 30 Problems of Uncertainty and Information in Economics 520
1. Background 521
2. Expected utility theory 523
3. Economic theory of information - search theory 533
4. Information asymmetry 535
Chapter 31 Theories of Economic Growth 537
1. Main topics of the theory of growth 537
2. Background 537
3. Model Harrod-Domar 541
4. R. Solow's neoclassical model of growth 546
5. Post Keynesian concepts of economic growth. Model Kaldora 551
6. New growth theories 552
Chapter 32 Supply Economics 554
1. Conservative challenge to Keynes 554
2. Supply-side economics. Theoretical foundations of the concept 556
3. Laffer curve and its justification 559
4. Empirical estimates of the most important dependencies. From theory to practice 561
Annex 1 Developments in the US private sector total savings rate 566
Chapter 33 Monetarism: Theoretical Foundations, Conclusions and Recommendations 567
1. General characteristics of the concept 567
2. The evolution of monetarism and its varieties 570
Appendix 1 St. Louis Model 584 Block Diagram
Appendix 2 US Price Growth and Unemployment Rate Data 1960-1997 585
Chapter 34 "New Classic": Tradition Restored 587
1. "New classics" in the context of topical problems of theory and practice 587
2. The rational expectations hypothesis 590
3. Equilibrium cyclic Lucas process 593
4. The macroeconomic model of the "new classics" and the impact of monetary policy on the economy 597
Annex 1 To the question of the ratio of expected AND OCCURING EVENTS 602
Chapter 35 F. Hayek and the Austrian Tradition 603
1. F. Hayek and economic thought of the XX century. 603
2. The main provisions of the philosophy and methodology of F. Hayek and their significance for economic theory 606
3. Economic theory as a problem of coordination 611
4. Hayek's contribution to the development of the theory of prices, capital, cycle and money 615
5. Principles and boundaries of economic policy 618
Chapter 36 Evolutionary Economics 621
1. The evolutionary principle in the history of economics 623
2. A modern approach to the application of the evolutionary principle in economics 630
3. Main directions and discussion questions of evolutionary economics 634
Chapter 37 Behavioral Economics 639
1. General characteristics 639
2. Bounded rationality model - methodological basis behavioral theory 641
3. Models of Variable Rationality 645
4. Behavioral Theory of the Firm - Mellon-Carnegie University School 647
5. Behavioral Consumption Theory - Michigan School 651
Chapter 38 New Institutional Theory 653
1. Methodological features and structure of the new institutional theory 654
2. Property rights, transaction costs, contractual relations 659
3. Coase's theorem 664
4. Theory economic organizations 668
5. Economics of law 676
6. Public Choice Theory 680
Chapter 39 Public Choice Theory 688
1. The ideological foundation of the theory of public choice 688
2. Provision of public goods in a direct democracy 690
3. Problems of Choice in a Representative Democracy 695
4. Theories based on the concept of public choice 703
Chapter 40 Economic Imperialism 719
1. Economic theory of discrimination 722
2. Theory of human capital 725
3. Economic analysis crime 728
4. Economic analysis of competition in the political market 730
5. Family economics 731
6. "Economic approach" as a research program 736
Chapter 41 A Few Words on Methodology 740
1. What is methodology and why is there interest in it today? 740
2. From the history of methodological discussions: from disputes about the subject and tasks to the problem of the criterion of the truth of a theory 742
3. "Atypical view": the epistemological function of value orientations and the language of theory as a way of persuasion 752
Chapter 42 Unity and Diversity of Modern Economic Theory 756
1. Mainstream and Alternatives 756
2. Specialization of certain areas of economic theory 760
3. Institutional factors that determine the structure of economic theory 761
4. National, cultural and other features of economic thought 762
Name Index 764