Economic behavior and economic consciousness as a subject of sociological study. Theoretical and methodological basis for the study of socio-economic behavior Levels of sociological analysis of economic behavior
Chapter 1. THE PRINCIPLE OF MAXIMIZATION AND ITS INTERPRETATION
1.1. The problem of rationality of economic behavior.
1.2. Paradoxes and limits of the maximization principle.
Chapter 2. ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR IN THE SYSTEM OF SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
2.1. Economic behavior in Western sociological concepts.
2.2. Interpretations of economic behavior in domestic sociology.
2.3. The main directions of the sociological analysis of economic behavior.
Chapter 3. ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR AND ITS MAIN MODIFICATIONS
3.1. Structure and functions of economic behavior.
3.2. Models of distributive behavior.
3.3. Production behavior and features of its implementation.
3.4. Economic behavior in the exchange cycle system.
3.5. Consumer models of economic behavior.
Chapter 4
4.1. Monetary behavior and its interpretation.
4.2. Entrepreneurial behavior and entrepreneurial function.
4.3. The nature of economic stereotypes (the experience of interpreting economic stereotypes in Russian folklore).
Dissertation Introduction 1999, abstract on sociology, Verkhovin, Vladimir Isaakovich
Relevance of the research topic.
1. The existing traditions of theoretical analysis of economic behavior within the framework of both sociological and economic sciences are constantly developing and enriched with new and new content. The process of conceptual understanding of this phenomenon, having certain historical boundaries, conceptual and categorical, ideological and sociocultural restrictions, is constantly being modified, opening up new horizons for the knowledge of diverse types of economic behavior. The latter are constituted in various institutional and socio-cultural forms, are at the center of theoretical and empirical analysis, scientific discussions, both in our country and abroad.
2. The intensive development of such an important branch of sociological knowledge as economic sociology, which is at the stage of formation, involves the development of its categorical-conceptual apparatus. In this regard, scientific interest is constantly growing in such a fundamental category as economic behavior, as well as in the sociological methods of its theoretical interpretation.
3. The transition to a market economy in Russia stimulates the interest of researchers, including sociologists, in this issue, as there has been a certain gap between the theoretical developments of economic behavior and applied, empirical knowledge obtained as a result of numerous sociological studies.
4. The problems associated with the study of economic behavior have relatively recently become the subject of research by modern Russian sociologists. In this regard, there is a growing interest in classical and modern Western studies that analyzed various models of economic behavior, as well as in the works of those domestic authors who made an original contribution to the behavioral analysis of economic processes.
5. The relevance of developing procedures for the sociological analysis of economic behavior is also explained by the fact that many problems associated with this phenomenon are developed within the framework of economic theories, especially institutional ones. This circumstance leads to the diffusion of sociological knowledge and criteria for sociological analysis of the economic life of society. Obviously, sociological
71-220004 (2333x3445x2 tiff) 4 An analysis of economic behavior will help clarify the demarcation of the boundaries of economic and sociological theories that study the economic life of society.
6. The author's interest in the theoretical interpretation of economic behavior is also explained by the fact that the scope of teaching this discipline in universities of the humanities and natural sciences is expanding. This presupposes the establishment of a serious theoretical course, which cannot be built on the basis of purely empirical research alone.
The degree of scientific development of the dissertation topic.
The founder of the behavioral approach in the field of economic sociology is considered to be M. Weber, whose theory of social action, including economic action, is the fundamental basis for the sociological analysis of the economic processes of society. For M. Weber, who revealed the structure of economic action, a rationalistic approach is characteristic, which makes it possible to build an ideal (pure) model of economic action, characteristic of a certain economic culture ("the spirit of capitalism")1.
V. Pareto was another outstanding analyst of economic behavior. He, referring economic actions to the category of rational (logical) behavior, "deduced" a whole class of non-logical models and forms of social behavior, based on social standards, stereotypes and traditions2.
An important contribution to the clarification of the social essence and nature of economic behavior, representative of the period of developing industrial capitalism, was made by G. Simmel. The monetary type of rationalization of social life identified by G. Simmel allowed him to reveal the nature of universal criteria and forms of socio-economic exchange that regulate and coordinate the behavior of many people3.
Our compatriot N. Kondratiev, within the framework of his probabilistic-statistical concept of the social sciences, managed to extrapolate the behavioral approach to a wide area of economic phenomena4.
1 CM.: Weber M. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology/ Vol. 1. Berkely: University California Press, 1978.
2 See: Hoffman A.B. Sociology of Vilfredo Pareto (Is Homo Sapiens Reasonable?) / History of Theoretical Sociology. T.2. M.: 1998, p.39.
3 See: Simmel G. The Philosophy of Money. Boston, 1978.
4 See: Kondratiev H.D. Main problems of economic statics and dynamics. M 1991.
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The line of behavioral analysis of the economic processes of a modern market society has been productively developed in the structural-functional approach of T. Parsons and his student N. Smelzer. which gave an institutional and sociocultural interpretation of economic action as a subsystem of social action.
The development of a sociological analysis of the economic processes of a modern market society goes in different directions. In the United States, there have been several paradigms for the development of economic sociology and the analysis of economic behavior: "sociology of rational choice" (R. Becker, J. Coleman)2; criticism of sociologists of rational choice (PSA - economics by J. Akerlof, A. Stinchcomb)3; new economic sociology associated with the theoretical and empirical search for the social and "network" context of economic action (X. White, M. Granovatter, etc.)4; criticism of neoclassical methods of explaining and describing real market behavior, the search for a cultural paradigm of its sociological analysis (A. Etzioni)5.
In Europe, in particular in France, in sociological theory there is also a special interest in the so-called "axiomatics of interest", that is, in the maximization principle underlying the explanation of various models of social behavior. This, according to A. Kaye, can be traced in the works of R. Boudon, M. Crozier, P. Bourdieu6.
Within the framework of economic theory, there is a tradition of analyzing economic behavior. It is worth highlighting the works of L. Mises and his praxeological interpretation of economic behavior and his student F. Hayek, who supplemented the concept of Mises
1 See ¡Parsons T., Smelser N. Economy and Society. A Study in the Integration of Economic and Social Theory. -L.: Routledge and P. Kegan, 1984.
2 See: Becker G. Economic Analysis and Human Behavior// THESIS, Vol. 1, Issue. 1, 1993, p. 24-40; Coleman J. Rational Choice Perspective on Economic Sociology/ The Handbook of Economic Sociology. Princeton.: PUP, 1994, p. 166-187.
3 CM.:Akerlof G. "Interview"/ Economics Sociology. Redefining Their Boundaries: Conversations with Economists and Sociologists by R. Swedberg. Princeton, N.Y.: PUP, 1990, p. 61-78; Akerlof J. Market "lemons": quality uncertainty and market mechanism / / THESIS, 1994, N5, Vol. 5, p. 91-104; Stinchcomb A. "Interview"/ Economics Sociology. Redefining Their Boundaries: Conversations with Economists and Sociologists by R. Swedberg. Princeton, N.Y.: PUP, 1990, p. 285-301.
4 See: White H. C. Where Do Markets Come From?// American Journal of Sociology. 1987, p. 514-547; Gra-novetter M. Getting of Job: A Study of Contracts and Careers. C.: Harvard University Press, 1971; Granovetter M. Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness// American Journal of Sociology, 1985, V.91, p. 481-510.
5 See: Etzioni A. Moral dimension: Towards a New Economics. N.Y. 1988.
6 See: Kayo A. Is the sociology of interest interesting? / Modern foreign sociology (70 - 80). M., 1993, p. 63-83.
71-220006 (2322x3437x2 tiff) 6 theories of the expanding market order, personal knowledge and competition as a discovery procedure1.
Within the framework of the economic theory of J. Keynes, there were many theoretical fragments in which the contours of the original concept of economic behavior were visible, which contributed to the emergence of the existential interpretation of the economic choice of J. Shackle and the concept of "homo creativus" by J. Foster.
Within the framework of J. Schumpeter's synthetic approach, the phenomenon of economic behavior rationality, which was the key to understanding his concept of "Sozialokonomik"3, was studied.
It should also be noted non-classical approaches to the interpretation of economic behavior, reflected in the concepts of G. Simon, R. Cyert, J. March (limited rationality) and X. Leibenstein ("variable" rationality). They singled out and analyzed the "limits" of rational choice, depending on the level of competence of the decision maker and other factors4.
In the "new" institutionalism and the economic theory of transaction costs (R. Coase, A. Alchian, D. North, R. Posner, O. Williamson, etc.), the neoclassical paradigm of the analysis of economic behavior was significantly expanded by searching for and finding its new components and meters that make it possible to single out the institutional "framework" of social actions and interactions, that is, "contract" systems (organizations) of various classes and orders5.
1 CM.:Mises L. Human action: a treatise on economics. Third revised edition. Ch.: Contemporary Books Inc., 1966; Hayek F. Individualism and economic order. Ch.: The University of Chicago Press, 1980; Hayek F. Pernicious arrogance. M.: Nauka, 1992.
2 See: Keynes J. General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money / Anthology of Economic Classics. M, 1993, p. 250-263; Shachle G. Epistemics and Economics. A Critique of Economic Doctrines. Cambridge, 1972; Foster J. Evolutionary macroeconomics. L. 1987.
3 See: Schumpeter J. A. The Meaning of Rationality in the Social Sciences/ The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism/Ed. by R. Swedberg. USA-GB.: Princeton University Press, 1991, p. 316-338.
4 See: Simon G. et al. Management in organizations. M., 1995; Simon H. Models of man. N.Y., 1957; Leibenstein H. Beyond the economic man. Cambridge, 1976; Leibenstein X. "X" - efficiency / Theory of the firm. SIb., 1995., p. 497-504.
5 For an overview of the main problems being developed in the new institutional economics and the theory of transaction costs, see: Williamson O. Transaction cost economics and organization theory// Industrial and corporate change. 1993 Vol. 2, p. 107-156; Williamson O. Economic institutions of capitalism. M., 1996., p. 2745, 92-126; Kapelyushnikov R.I. Economic theory of the rights of owners. M., 1990.
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Behavioral analysis of production (labor) processes was actively used in domestic Soviet sociology. It should be noted the works of V. Yadov, A. Zdravomyslov, V. Podmarkov, N. Naumova, Yu. Krasovsky and other authors1.
In the transitional (post-Soviet) period, the "focus" of behavioral analysis gradually shifted to the field of economic processes, there was a certain interest in studying various models of maximizing (economic) behavior, which was associated with the stage of formation of market relations in our country. There are several areas of research in economic and sociological sciences:
Empirical (applied), which studied the real processes of the transition period and the corresponding transitional models of economic behavior associated with the formation of the labor market, entrepreneurship, the formation of a market economic culture, changes in the value orientations of employees, the emergence of new elements of the social structure of Russian society2;
Theoretical, within the framework of which various conceptual approaches were developed related to the substantiation of the subject of economic sociology, the analysis of bio-economic models, economic culture and risk, entrepreneurship, property, rational economic choice, labor, organizational, economic behavior and consciousness3;
1 Man and his work / Ed. A. Zdravomyslova, V. Rozhin, V. Yadov. N., 1967; Yadov V. On the dispositional regulation of the social behavior of the individual / Methodological problems of social psychology. M., 1975; Self-regulation and prediction of the social behavior of the individual / Ed. V. Yadova. L., 1979.; Podmarkov V. Man in the labor collective. M., 1982; Working engineer: social factors of labor efficiency / Ed. O. Shkaratana. M., 1985; Zdravomyslov A. Needs. Interests. Values. M., 1986; Krasovsky Yu. Management: the moral basis of business behavior. M., 1983; Naumova NF Sociological and psychological aspects of purposeful behavior. M., 1988, etc.
2 Ryvkina R. V. Between socialism and the market: the fate of economic culture in the USSR. M., 1994.; Belya-ninova E. Motivation and behavior of Russian enterprises// Questions of Economics, 1996, No. 6, p. 15-30; Radygin et al. Post-privatization share capital structure and corporate control: the counter-revolution of managers// Voprosy ekonomiki, 1995, no. 10, p. 47-39; Rozinsky I. Russian enterprises: the dilemma of internal shareholders / / REG, 1996, No. 2, p. 30-40; Barsukova S.Yu., Gerchikov V.I. Privatization and labor relations: from the unified and the general to the particular and the different. N., 1997.; Magun V.S. Labor values of the Russian population: Socialist model and post-socialist reality // Where is Russia going? M., 1995; Kupriyanova 3. V. Different groups of workers in the sphere of labor // Economic and social changes. Monitoring public opinion. 1996, No. 4, p. 30-35; Gritsenko Zh. M. et al. Social portrait of an entrepreneur // SOCIS., 1992, No. 10, p. 53-61; Antosenkov S. Monitoring of the social and labor sphere of the Russian Federation (1992-1994) // SOCIS., 1995, no., p. 50-65; Naumova T.V. Market reforms in the Russian dimension// SOCIS., 1998, No. 1, p. 55-61; Where is Russia going? General and special in modern development / Under the general. ed. T.I. Zaslavskaya. M., 1997; Zaslavskaya T.I. The business layer of Russian society: essence, structure, status// SOCIS., 1995, No. 3, p. 3-12 etc.
3 Zaslavskaya T. I. Ryvkina R. V. Sociology of economic life. N., 1991; Radaev VV Economic sociology. M., 1997; Sokolova G. N. Economic sociology. Minsk, 1995, 2nd edition. - Minsk, 1998; Davydov Yu. Who are you, Homo economicus?// Science and Life, M., 1990, No. 11, p. 106-111; Zaslavskaya T. I. Creative activity of the masses: social reserves of growth / / ECO, 1996, No. 3; Kravchenko AI Labor organizations: structure, functions, behavior. M., 1991; Ryvkina R.V. Economic culture as a memory of society//
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Historical and analytical, in which domestic authors explored various areas of analysis of economic behavior and economic institutions, presented in the works of classics and modern foreign authors1.
It should be noted that despite the abundance of publications by modern domestic authors, insufficient attention is paid to the theoretical analysis of such a phenomenon as economic behavior. Comparative analysis modern theoretical works in domestic and Western literature and the frequency of publications on this issue, unfortunately, is not in our favor. Therefore, this study is an attempt to enter the system of "homo economicus" problems, developed and developed by a wider circle of the scientific community, both in our country and abroad, and to highlight the most relevant, from the author's point of view, areas of sociological analysis of market forms of economic behavior. All this led to the choice of the topic of the dissertation research, the definition of its goals and objectives.
The object of the study is social behavior and its conceptual reflection within the framework of the behavioral paradigm of sociological and economic analysis.
Subject of study - market models economic behavior.
The purpose of the study is the theoretical development of the behavioral paradigm of the sociological analysis of economic behavior of the market type.
In accordance with the goal, the following tasks are supposed to be solved:
Sociological interpretation of the phenomenon of economic behavior rationality and criticism of the maximization principle as a "universal" theoretical means of explaining and describing real models of economic choice;
ECO, No. 1, 1989; Krasovsky Yu. D. Management of behavior in the firm. M., 1997; He is. Organizational behavior. M., 1999; Algin A. Innovation, initiative, risk. L., 1987; Verkhovin V. I. Economic behavior as a subject of sociological analysis// SOCIS., 1994, No. 10, p. 120-126; Fetisov E. N., Yakovlev N. On the social aspects of entrepreneurship// SOCIS., 1993, No. 1, p. 24-30; Kleiner G. Modern economy as an economy individuals// Questions of Economics, 1996, No. 4, p. 80-95; Brodsky B. Dialectics and the principle of choice / / ONS, 1995, No. 2, p. 82-93; He is. A priori of choice and a "leap of faith". On the structuralist method to economic theory// ONS, 1996, No. 6, p. 111-122; He is. Epistemic choice and social structure// ONS, 1997, No. 6, p. 97-107; Toshchenko J. Sociology. M „ 1998, p. 89-166; Chernysheva L. Economic sociology: actual problems. M., 1996; Zubkov VI Introduction to risk theory (sociological aspect). M., INION RAN No. 53847, 1998, etc.
1 Avtonomov V. S. Man in the mirror of economic theory. M, 1993; Radaev R. V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 15-49; Veselov Yu. Economic sociology: the history of ideas. SPb., 1995; Gaidenko P., Davydov Yu. History and rationality. M., 1991; Kravchenko A. I. Sociology of M. Weber: labor and economics. M., 1997; Otmakhov P. Empiricism in economic science: theory and practice// Questions of Economics, 1998, No. 4, p. 58-72; Shcherbina VV Sociology of organizations. Dictionary reference. M., 1996; Kapelyushnikov D. Economic theory of property rights. M., 1990, etc.
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Study of problems and conceptual schemes of economic behavior of economic behavior in modern Western and domestic economic sociology;
Identification and interpretation within the framework of the behavioral approach, from the point of view of the author, the most promising principles and methods of sociological analysis of economic behavior;
Formulation of the definition of economic behavior and its main models (production, distribution, exchange and consumer), the study of their main characteristics, determined by the market institutional order;
Disclosure of the specifics of the quantitatively calculated (calculation and analytical) basis of economic action and the development on this basis of a typology of monetary behavior;
Identification of innovative components in the structure of economic behavior and their generalization in models of entrepreneurial behavior;
Analysis of stereotypes of economic behavior based on semantic interpretations of folklore material reflecting traditional practices of economic life.
Theoretical and methodological foundations of dissertation research.
As a theoretical basis of the dissertation, the author uses: the principles of "understanding sociology by M. Weber, the generalizing method of V. Pareto, the sociological interpretation of economic (monetary) models of social behavior by G. Simmel; the praxeological concept of human action by L. Mises and the concept of organic rationality by F. Hayek, N. Kondratiev's probabilistic-statistical philosophy of social sciences, F. Braudel's world-system concept.
The need to search for institutional foundations for the sociological analysis of economic behavior and its normative and functional characteristics required the use of the concept of structural and functional analysis by T. Parsons and his student N. Smelser, as well as the conceptual schemes of economists R. Coase, O. Williamson, A. Alchian and others. The author used in his work the concepts of those specialists who stated and substantiated the insufficiency of the rational choice model and gave its critical analysis (G. Simon, J. Keynes, M. Blaug, H. Leibenstein and
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Discussions about the subject, method and structure of economic sociology, reflected in the works of both Western (G. Becker, A., M. Granovetter, R. Svedberg, N. Smelser, etc.) play an important role in the development of the theoretical provisions presented in the dissertation. and domestic authors (T. Zaslavskaya, R. Ryvkina, V. Radaev, Zh. Toshchenko, Yu. Veselov, G. Sokolova, L. Chernysheva and others).
The main provisions submitted for defense and their scientific novelty.
In the dissertation, within the framework of economic sociology, a behavioral paradigm of the sociological analysis of market economic processes is developed. According to this:
L "the principle of maximization that follows from it, synthesizing and concretizing the theoretical and practical experience of achieving economic goals within the framework of the market order;
The principles of the sociological analysis of economic behavior based on the liberal-humanistic paradigm of rational choice, which is a product of the evolution of market institutions, are generalized;
It is stated that the sociological interpretation of economic behavior cannot be the product of one universal point of view. Scientific search in this area is the result of the struggle of various paradigms, scientific schools and ideologies. They are a system of competing concepts that serve the interests of different social groups and are in constant search for criteria for the objectivity of scientific knowledge. An illustration of this fact is the inconsistency of the methods and approaches of the sociological analysis of the economic processes of society, which are put forward and used by various representatives of economic sociology, both in the West and in our country;
The point of view on the need for further development of the classical directions of the sociological analysis of economic processes presented in the works of M. Weber, V. Pareto, N. Kondratiev and others is substantiated.
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11 methods, among which the author highlights the world-system approach of F. Braudel, which is the basis of the historical and sociological analysis of economic processes and the method of sociological inversion of fragments of economic theory. The latter makes it possible to describe and specify models of economic behavior that are structured in various sectors of the economy and are a verbalization of the experience of many specialists - practitioners and theorists;
Definitions of economic behavior are formulated, the essence of which is the optimal circulation of economic resources in order to obtain benefits (benefit, reward, profit) and its main modifications: distribution, production, exchange and consumption. The characteristics of the main limits of rational economic choice are given, including: resource, competitive, functional, stratification and others, and the main factors of specialization of economic behavior models, which are the basis for their classification, are considered;
A behavioral interpretation of the institution of ownership is developed, and the main parameters and features of distributive models of economic behavior are analyzed: economic, agency, functional and redistributive;
The specificity of production behavior is studied and the incompleteness of the maximization analysis of the activity of production organizations (firms, enterprises) is substantiated. On this basis, cost-compensatory models of labor behavior are identified and considered, which are determined by socio-economic institutions for coordinating the economic interests of subjects with varying degrees of access to economic resources; formulates the main functions of organizational behavior associated with the optimization of the targets of production organizations;
A behavioral interpretation of the mechanisms of economic (market) exchange, the structure and main functions of commercial (trading) behavior is given based on the integration of the concept of communicative behavior by J. Habermas and the expanding market order by F. Hayek;
The "internal" structure of consumption is analyzed as a process of "extracting" usefulness, which is determined by socio-cultural standards, income level and degree of competence (rationality) of the subjects of consumer behavior. A hypothetical model of "normative" consumption is being developed and
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12 criteria and methods that provide optimal (for each income group) balances of spending and savings of the consumer budget, as well as the proportions of consumption;
Three important directions of the sociological analysis of economic behavior are developed and substantiated: the first direction is the theoretical interpretation of the quantitatively calculated elements of economic actions that are derivatives of the institution of money. Based on this, a typology of monetary models (rational, traditional, altruistic, affective-irrational) is developed and their characteristics are given; the second direction is the analysis of the creative components of economic action, typified on three grounds: functions, profiles (methods of obtaining benefits) and values of the entrepreneurial ethos; the third direction is the analysis of stereotypes of economic behavior, based on the method of semantic interpretation (hermeneutics) of literary texts, in our case, folklore material that reflects traditional practices of economic behavior.
The practical significance of the study.
The materials of the dissertation research constitute an independent training course in economic sociology.
Approbation of dissertation work.
The main provisions of the study were tested at scientific conferences: "Property reforms as a prerequisite for the restoration and development of entrepreneurship in Russia" (Moscow-Yugoslavia, 1995), interuniversity methodological seminar "Economic sociology: finance and the state" (Moscow, 1998), Lomonosov Readings (Moscow State University, 1994 -1998) and others, as well as in the process of teaching the general course and special courses in economic sociology, sociology of labor and entrepreneurship at the Faculty of Sociology of Moscow State University and in other universities from 1993 to 1999.
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The dissertation was discussed at a meeting of the Department of Sociology of Labor and Entrepreneurship, Faculty of Sociology, Lomonosov Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov.
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Conclusion of scientific work thesis on "Economic Behavior as a Subject of Sociological Analysis"
CONCLUSION
1. An important aspect of the sociological analysis of economic behavior is the theoretical and empirical interpretation of the phenomenon of rationality and the principle of maximization that follows from it.
A large number of publications on these issues within the framework of economic and sociological theories, the polarity of opinions of various authors does not make it possible to formulate a universal point of view on this issue. This is due to the following reasons:
The multidimensionality and ambiguity of rational economic behavior, which has a “multi-tiered” structure and cannot be reduced only to the rules of a logical conclusion or technologically expedient action oriented towards specific pragmatic and economic goals;
The multiplicity of axiological prerequisites (preferences) for rational choice and means (technologies) for its implementation;
The multicriteria of its foundations, which often contradict each other both in theory and in practice.
2. Methods and methods for implementing the maximization principle are subject to a number of criteria that imply the multidimensionality and ambiguity of its interpretation.
As a basic value of economic behavior, it is a derivative of certain socio-cultural conditions and orders that develop in the process of social evolution, and cannot autonomously exist outside of their context.
As an element of economic interest, the principle of maximization plays a technological role associated with the implementation of certain preferences and values. The latter are not inside the maximizing action, but outside it in the system of those axiological motives that determine the social choice associated with the requirements of a certain socio-cultural and institutional environment.
As a tool for solving economic problems, this principle and technologies for maximizing benefits (utility, productivity, efficiency) arising from it presuppose a certain degree of competence of those who form and solve these problems. In turn, competence and its autonomous requirements can, under certain conditions, become the basic value of maximization actions and give rise to such varieties of them (innovations) that can go beyond the traditional socio-cultural and institutional context.
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as a component rational decision and action, the principle of maximization implies, on the one hand, the freedom of personal (individual) choice, which is necessary condition its implementation, on the other hand, are the normative and axiological boundaries of the maximizing function (limits of “maximizing egoism”), otherwise the achievement of benefits (success) for some will be ensured at the expense of the defeat and failures of other subjects who, against their will, lose economic, social and other resources.
As a factor of multidimensional rational action, it manifests itself in the variability of the choice of alternatives that can compete and contradict each other in terms of social optimality, expediency and competence. This concerns the problems of substantiating and choosing alternatives for maximizing both individual action and group, organizational, and social action.
As an element of the behavioral set, the maximization principle can be interpreted as a derivative of the actions of many people with different goals, interests, competences, resources and functioning in different situations. This gives rise to the problem of social optimality of the functioning of “behavioral sets”, which is connected, on the one hand, with the balance and coordination of economic interests within them, and on the other hand, with the preservation of the necessary social space for freedom of individual choice, decision and action (especially in innovative cases).
3. It seems to us that the problem of rational economic behavior in the structure of sociological analysis can be interpreted as follows: the components of rational action are a special subject of consideration. b) Considering and analyzing the logical-technological and instrumental components of economic action, as well as their many varieties and modifications, one should focus on their cultural dimension, scale and social forms of their functioning. The latter are an indicator of the effectiveness or inefficiency of those social systems where they are applied. This is explained both by evolution, the development of rational means of human existence, and those axiological and institutional contexts that determine the possibilities of their use.
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290 c) An important aspect of the sociological analysis of economic behavior is the identification of its criterial, sociocultural and institutional foundations, firstly, from the point of view of clarifying the genetic and historical prerequisites for the formation of certain social forms and methods of rational human choice. Secondly, in terms of interpretation of real and ideal social orders and institutional structures, in the system of which specific criteria and methods for the implementation of rational choice may be possible. Thirdly, in the aspect of studying the “social axiomatics” of a legitimate rational choice, which ensures its individual (personal) and social expediency, as well as the analysis of mass social preferences typical of a certain economic culture.
4. The perspective of the sociological analysis of the phenomenon of economic behavior is not limited to one rigid criterion due to the multidimensionality, stochastic nature of social life, the paradigm of its theoretical analysis, the presence of various ideologies and forms of perception of social reality. If we take a realistic position of constructing that fragment of social reality that makes up our subject, then even then it will “stratify” into a number of components that are in a very complex balance and ratio in the system of theoretical reflection.
Thus, within the framework of sociological analysis, economic behavior acts as:
A special fragment of social reality, which is distinguished and perceived in various ways, as a system: individually personal and behavioral experience; social facts, and their organizing conceptual schemes and theoretical constructions, which are derivatives of certain scientific traditions (for example, the problem of "homo economicus") and scientific culture;
The process of cognition and "measurement" of this fragment of social reality, implemented within the framework of a specific research interest and available research procedures that give a relative idea of what is being studied;
Praxeological process (JI. Mises), where rational choices and actions receive their final meaning in the very fact of achieved and unachieved results (materialized, socialized and institutionalized);
A specific type of social activity implemented in a certain socio-cultural and institutional context, i.e. "within" a fairly "rigid" system of social institutions, everyday practices, routines, traditions and stereotypes, social
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291 lysing and shaping the plurality of acts of individual rational choice;
The historical sequence of certain social processes that carry within themselves an evolving ethos of rational choice and action, which is constantly concretized and enriched in the social practice of real individuals, groups, organizations and social populations.
5. A sociological analysis of economic behavior, while focusing on sociocultural and institutional prerequisites and "contexts", still cannot ignore the study of its logical, functional, technological and other components. This is explained by the fact that, abstracting from the plurality of logical and functional ways of its implementation and reducing all economic actions to the general principles of rationality and maximization, one can lose specific guidelines and technologies for measuring the social reality that is being studied.
In turn, the phenomenologically constructed components of rational choice in the structure of economic behavior, being the basis of its analysis, should be expanded through such analytical procedures that allow revealing the multidimensionality of real human action unfolding in a real social context. These analytical procedures of sociological analysis include: resource analysis of economic actions, which makes it possible to classify and specify various specialized models and their modifications; technological analysis of economic actions, which identifies specific methods and means of their implementation in accordance with the goals set; maximization analysis, which determines the modes, methods and technologies for maximizing and calculating economic benefits; pragmatic (praxeological) analysis of economic behavior and its modifications, allowing to evaluate their effectiveness and efficiency; cost-compensation analysis, which determines the meaning and method of realizing a specific economic interest; functional analysis, which involves the assessment and measurement of the competence of subjects of economic behavior and their real capabilities; temporal analysis, fixing the "chronotope" of economic action, i.e. temporal features of its course, as well as the ability or inability of subjects of economic behavior to rationally manage time resources.
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6. An important place in the structure of sociological analysis is occupied by the study of institutional "frameworks" of economic behavior, which cement discrete stochastic "behavioral sets", organizing and integrating a certain social order in them both in time and in space. Naturally, the institution of property occupies a special place in the system of these social orders. One aspect of sociological analysis is its institutional-behavioral interpretation. It allows translating the institutional-contractual mechanisms of socio-economic interaction (exchange) into their dynamic behavioral counterparts (G. Simmel), highlighting the normative-behavioral matrix of various economic actions both in the starting and finishing phases.
This approach makes it possible to distinguish economic actions depending on the degree of control of various subjects over economic resources and to differentiate models of economic behavior into economic, agency, functional, and redistributive ones. Within the latter, objectively different economic interests, ways of maximizing benefits, and, ultimately, various criteria of economic and social expediency and efficiency are realized.
7. The current direction of sociological analysis is the study of the characteristics of production behavior, social and economic mechanisms for the integration and specialization of production organizations of various kinds. A key element of this analysis is sociological interpretation:
The production function of the firm and contract-institutional and management mechanisms that ensure its optimization;
Limits of social efficiency and expediency of integration of economic interests of members of a production organization;
The balance of interests of owners and employees, which makes it possible or impossible to optimize the production function of the company;
The axiological mode of production behavior, i.e. instrumental and terminal values that determine the maximization preferences and maximization modes of the members of the production organization in accordance with their economic and professional statuses and interests;
Dysfunctional (centrifugal) tendencies that contribute to the emergence of models for minimizing production and labor activity (restrictionism and opportunism).
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8. A relatively independent "section" of the sociological analysis of various models of economic behavior is their consideration through the categories of social (economic) exchange and interaction. This approach involves theoretical understanding and study of facts, factors, processes, objects, subjects and the subject of exchange behavior, including:
Analysis of the problems of equivalence, justice and symmetry of economic actions as forms of social exchange;
Search and specification of criteria and measures of social exchange - universal (generally significant), local (group), individual-personal;
The study of social mechanisms, institutions, "networks" of social exchange and interaction that underlie numerous types of economic obligations (contracts) and their modifications.
The use of transactional analysis, which has exceptional opportunities in terms of theoretical construction and explanation of the "behavior" of contractual social systems ( economic organizations various types) - from the simplest dual chains of commodity-money exchange to the most complex corporate, joint-stock and partner formations.
9. In the structure of sociological analysis, an important place is occupied by the study of models of consumer behavior that demonstrate various forms of interrelationships (determination) of consumer choice with the forms of searching, obtaining and using means (economic and social) of household subsistence (families and individual consumers). Among the areas of study of consumer behavior, analysis can be distinguished:
The reasons and factors for the "incompleteness" of consumer behavior models in economic theory, which does not give an idea of how individuals come to the formulation of their needs, correlate their desires with certain values and proceed to the implementation of rational actions related to the optimization of the utility function;
Mechanisms for determining consumer behavior, which are derivatives of a certain consumer culture and those institutional arrangements that follow from it;
Standards, criteria and preferences of consumer choice and those objective (market) and subjective factors that determine and condition its variability, methods, goals and means of real models of consumer behavior;
Consumer ethos typical of specific consumer cultures and sub
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294 cultures and those practices and stereotypes of consumer behavior that represent these cultures in everyday, human (social) behavior, translating the socio-cultural principles and methods of a specific consumer choice in space and time;
- "optimal" and "non-optimal" criteria of consumer choice, demonstrating the dispersion of consumption patterns, which within specific economies are differentiated into many varieties: normal (representative), deviant, prestigious, rational and irrational;
Rational consumer choice procedures that ensure the optimal balance of consumer budgets and methods for calculating consumer resources.
10. Economic actions and interactions can be analyzed in two dialectically polar areas. First, as a self-regulating system of economic exchange based on money. Secondly, as an innovative type of social action that produces new alternatives, means, technologies and results that have no analogues.
Money as a means and method of calculation is the calculation and analytical basis of economic actions. This applies to both traditional routine behavioral programs and non-standard innovative (entrepreneurial) ones. In this regard, a sociological analysis of these two polar aspects of economic behavior involves focusing on the study of:
Institutional-quantitative limits of social choice, conditioned by money as a factor and means of calculation and evaluation of economic actions and interactions (exchange) between people;
Creative acts of entrepreneurial behavior that turn under the influence of their quantitative assessment (including with the help of money) into objective, accessible results;
The processes of rationalization, intellectualization (G. Simmel) of economic behavior based on two interacting elements: institutional-quantitative (monetary-price) and qualitative, reflecting innovative projections of the creative human mind.
11. A productive approach to sociological analysis is the hermeneutics of real situations and texts, including the study and decoding of the rational content of stereotypes of economic behavior. This method allows, as we showed above:
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To carry out a rational reconstruction of various speech formulas that reflect numerous stereotypes of human (economic) behavior;
To identify rational elements of economic life in the structure of everyday consciousness and behavior, including methods for calculating means to achieve important goals, choosing alternatives, optimizing traditional models of economic behavior;
To highlight the “universals” of economic exchange reflected in the mass consciousness, the institutions and mechanisms that provide it: money and their functions, the categories of “demand-supply”, “cost-reimbursement”, methods for calculating benefits, elements of balance and accounting, the institution of property, etc. . P.
It seems to us that the semantic interpretation of various texts, including folklore material, has exceptional opportunities in the study of traditional practices of economic life.
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173. Simmons J., Mare W. How to become an owner. The American Experience of Employee Participation in Ownership and Management. -M.: Arguments and facts, 1993.
174. Sinki J. F. Financial management in commercial banks. -M.: Catallaxy, 1994.
175. Slobodskoy A.JI. Economic behavior: socio-psychological substantiation of the theoretical. typologies. -SPb.: Ed. SPb. University of Economics and Finance, 1994.
176. Smelzer. Sociology of economic life // American sociology. Prospects, problems, methods. -M.: Progress, 1972.
177. Property and reform / Sat. Art.; Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov. Economy factor; Ed. V.N. Cherkovets, V.V. Konyshev. M., 1995.
178. Sokolova G. N. Economic sociology. -Mn.: Navuka i tehnika, 1995.
179. Soros J. Alchemy of Finance. -M.: INFRA-M, 1996.
180. Spirin V. M. Theory of needs. -Tver, 1994.
181. Stigler J. Economic information theory// Theory of the firm. SPb.: Ekon. school, 1995, p. 507-508.
182. Theory of consumer behavior and demand / Comp. and general ed. issue V. M. Galperin. -SPb.: Ekon. school, 1993.
183. Theory of the firm / V. S. Avtonomov, A. V. Anikin, I. N. Baranov, and others; Comp. and general ed. issue V. M. Galperin. SPb.: Ekon. school, 1995.
184. Turner J. The structure of sociological theory. -M.: Progress, 1985.
185. Toshchenko Zh. T. Sociology: general course: Proc. allowance for universities. -M.: Prometheus, 1994.
186. Williamson OI Economic institutions of capitalism: firms, markets, relational contracting. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat; CEV Press, 1996.
187. Lessons of business organization / R. G. Coase, O. I. Williamson, R. R. Nelson; Under total ed. A.A. Demina, V. S. Katkalo. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1994.
188. Usoskin VM Problems of money in the economic theory of the West: Enter. article//Harris L. Monetary theory. -M.: Progress, 1990, p. 5-70.
189. Fal'tsman VK Microeconomics of planned and entrepreneurial systems / Ros. AN. Institute of Economics. -M., 1992.
190. Friedman M. Methodology of positive economic science// THESIS, 1994, v. 2, no. 4, p. 20-52.
191. Fromm E. To have or to be. -M.: Progress, 1986.
192. Hayek F. A. Road to slavery. -M.: Economics, 1992.
193. Hayek F. A. Pernicious arrogance: Mistakes of socialism / Per. from English; Ed. W. W. Bartley, III. -M.: News, 1992.71.220306 (2307x3427x2 tiff)306
194. Hayek F.A. Private money / Per. from English; Institute of National economic models. -B.m., 1996.
195. Heilbroner R. Economic theory as a universal science// THESIS, v. 1, no. 1, p. 41-55.
196. Hyman D. N. Modern microeconomics: analysis and application: In 2 vols. -1992.
197. Characteristics of new property agents/Ros. AN. Institute of Social and Polit. research -M., 1992.
198. Harris JI. money theory. -M.: Progress, 1990.
199. Huizinga J. Homo ludens. In the shadow of tomorrow -M.: Ed. gr. "Progress", "Progress-Academy", 1992.
200. Heine P. Economic way of thinking. -M.: News, Catallaxy, 1991.
201. Hekhauzen X. Motivation and activity: in 2 vols. M .: Pedagogy, 1986.
202. Hicks J. Cost and capital. -M.: Progress, 1993.
203. Hosking A. The course of entrepreneurship. -M.: Intern. rel., 1993.
204. Chandeson J., Lansestre A. Methods of sale / Per. from French; Tot. ed. V. S. Zagashvili. -3rd ed., corrected. -M.: Progress: Univers, 1993.
205. Sharov A.N. The evolution of money under capitalism. -M.: Finance and statistics, 1990.
206. Sharp W., Alexander G., Bailey J. Investments. -M.: INFRA-M, 1997.
207. Shveri R. Theoretical concept of D. Coleman: an analytical review// SOCIS, 1996, No. 1-2.
208. Sheler M. Selected works. -M.: Publishing house "Gnosis", 1994.
209. Shikhirev PN Modern social psychology in Western Europe. -M.: Nauka, 1985.
210. Shikhirev PN Modern social psychology in the USA. -M.: Nauka, 1979.
211. Shoemaker P. Expected Utility Model: Varieties, Approaches, Results, and Limits// THESIS, 1994, No. 5, no. 5, p. 29-80.
212. Schumpeter J. History of economic analysis. Ch. 1.2 / Origins: Questions of the history of the national economy and economic. thoughts. Issue. 1, 2. - L .: Economics, 1989, 1990.
213. Schumpeter J. Capitalism, socialism, democracy. -M.: Economics, 1995.1. V"
214. Schumpeter I. Theory economic development(Study of entrepreneurial profit, capital, credit, interest and business cycle). -M.: Progress, 1982.
215. Shcherbina V.V. Sociology of organizations. Dictionary reference. -M.: "Soyuz", 1996.
216. Evolutionary Approach and Problems of the Transitional Economy: (Reports and speeches of the participants of the International Symposium, Pushchino, September 12-15, 1994). -M., 1995.71.220307 (2326x3440x2 tiff)307
217. Aidzhel L., Boyd B. How to buy shares. - St. Petersburg: SaTis, 1994.
218. Labor economics and social and labor relations. -M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University; CheRo Publishing House, 1996.
219. Elster Yu. Social norms and economic theory// THESIS, 1993, vol. 1, issue. 3, p. 73-91.
220. Ehrenberg R. J., Smith R. S. Modern labor economics. Theory and public policy. -M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1996.
221. Arrow K. Information and economic behavior// Vopr. Ekon., 1995, No. 5, p. 98-107.
222. Erhard L. Half a century of reflection: Speeches and articles. -M.: Russiko: Ordynka, 1993.
223. Yadov V.A. On the dispositional regulation of the social behavior of a person// Methodological problems of social psychology. -M.: Nauka, 1975.
224. Yakovlev A.M. Sociology of economic crime. -M.: Nauka, 1988.
225. Backhouse R. E. Economists and the Economy. The evolution of economic ideas. -USA-GB: Transaction Puplishers, 1993.
226 Blaug M. The Methodology of Economics. Or how economists explain. -Cambridge University Press, 1992.
227. Coleman J. A Rational Choice Perspective on Economic Sociology// The Handbook of Economic Sociology/Ed. by N. Smelser and R. Swedberg. -Princeton, 1994, p. 166-187.
228. DiMaggio Culture and Economy// The Handbook of Economic Sociology. -Princeton, 1994, p. 27-57.
229. Dodd N. The Sociology of Money: economics, reason and contemporary society. -GB:Polity Press, 1994.
230. Etzioni A. The Moral Dimension. Toward a New Economics. -N.Y.-L.: The Free Press, 1990.
231. Friedman M. Capitalism and freedom. -Ch.-L.: The University of Chicago Press, 1982.
232. Granovetter M. Business Groups// The Handbook of Economic Sociology. -Princeton, 1994, p. 453-474.
233. Granovetter M. Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness// American Journal of Sociology, 1985, vol. 91, p. 481-510.
234. Granovetter M. Economic Institutions as Social Constructions: A Framework for Analysis// Acta Sociologica, 1992, vol. 35, p. 3-12.
235. Granovetter M. Getting a Job: A Study of Contracts and Careers. -Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974.
236. Hayek F. A. Individualism and economic order. -Ch.: The University of Chicago Press, 1980.71.220308 (2309x3428x2 tiff)3G8
237. Heinemann K. Soziologie des Geldes// Kolner Ztschr. für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 1987, h. 28, s. 322-338.
238. Keita L. The neoclassics economics maximization hypothesis: An epistemological note// Quality and Quantity. -Amsterdam, 1988, vol. 22, no. 4, p. 403-415.
239. Mises L. Human action: a treatise on economics. Third revised edition. -Ch.: Contemporary Books. Inc., 1966.
240. Odiorne G. Management Theory Jungle and the Existential Manager// Academy of Jornal, 1966, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 111-116.
241. O "Neill J. Altruism, egoism and the market / / Philos. forum. - Boston, 1992, vol. 23, No. 4, p. 278288.
242. Parsons T., Smelser N. Economy and Society. A Study in the Integration of Economic and Social Theory. -L.: Routledge and P. Kegan, 1984.
243. Schumpeter J. A. The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism/Ed. by Swedberg R. -USA-GB: Princeton University Press, 1991.
244. Simmel G. The Philosophy of Money. -Boston: Mass, 1978.
245. Swedberg R. Economics and Sociology. Redefining Their Boundaries: Conversations with Economists and Sociologists. -N. Y: Princeton University Press, 1990.
246. Swedberg R. Markets as Social Structures// Handbook of Economic Sociology. -N.Y., 1994, p. 255-283.
247. The Capitalist spirit: toward a religions ethnic of wealth creation/ Ed. by P. L. Berger. -San Francisco: LCS Press, 1990.
248. The Handbook of Economic Sociology/Ed. by Smelser N. J., Swedberg R. -USA-GB: P.U.P., 1994.
249. Weber M. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. -Berkeley: University California Press, 1978, vol. one.
250. Wiliamson O. Transaction cost economics and organization theory// Industrial and corporate change, 1993, vol. 2, p. 107-156.
251. Wilson E. The genetic determinants in human social behavior// The Study of Human Nature/Ed. by L.Stevenson. -N.Y.-0.:0xford University Press, 1981, p. 255-264.
252. Zafinovski M., Levine B. Economic Sociology Reformulated: The Interface Between Economics and Sociology// The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 1997, vol. 56, no. 3, p. 265-285.
253. Zelizer V. A. The social meaning of money. N. Y.: Basic Books, 1994.71.220309
254. Ministry of Economy Ministry of General and
255. Russian Federation of Vocational Education1. Russian Federation
256. State University-Higher School of Economics
257. Approved by the EMC Approved at the meeting
258. Section of the Department of Economics1. Chair of Sociology
259. Head. Department, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor 1999 Shkaratan O.I. 1999
260. The program of the discipline Economic sociology for the undergraduate direction: 521600 economics1. Moscow 1999 71.220310 (2332x3443x2 W)21. Explanatory note
262. Verkhovin Vladimir Isaakovich
263. Abstract of the course "Economic sociology"
264. An important objective of the course is the behavioral interpretation of the economic processes of society in its classical, neoclassical and non-classical versions, both within the framework of sociological and economic theories.
265. Theme and content of the course
266. Topic 1. The subject of economic sociology.
267. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 3-35; 36-64
268. Veselov Yu.V. Economic Sociology: A History of Ideas. SPb, 1995, p.3-9
269. Zaslavskaya T.I., Ryvkina R.V. Sociology of economic life, Novosibirsk,<99/, с. 49-83; 83-95
270. Kondratiev N.D. The main problems of economic statistics and dynamics. M., 1991, p. 86-95
271. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 50-63
272. Sokolova G.N. Economic sociology. Mn., 1998, p. 68-88
273. Smelser N., Sweedberg R. The Handbook of Economie Sociology. Princeton, 1994. P 3-26
274. Topic 2. Homo economicus models in economic theory.
275. Avtonomov B.C. Man in the mirror of economic theory. M., 1993
276. Blaug M. Economic thought retrospective. M., 1991, p. 275-288; 647-661
277. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 36-6471.220312 (2308x3428x2 tiff)4
278. Veselov Yu.V. Economic Sociology: A History of Ideas. SPb, 1995, p. 95-124
279. Makhlup F. Theories of the firm: mazhinalistskie, behaviorist and managerial / Theory of the firm, St. Petersburg, 1995, p. 71-93
280. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 15-35
281. Williamson O. Economic institutions of capitalism. M., 1996, p. 91-126
283. Hayek F. Individualism and economic order. Ch. 1980. p. 1-33
284. Mises L. Human action: a treatise on economics. Ch. 1906. p. 1-33
285. Mulberg J. Social Limits to Economic Theory. G.B., 1995
286. Topic 3. Homo economicus models in sociological theory and their interpretation.
287. Evolution of models of economic behavior in sociological theory.
288. The problem of rationality of economic behavior. The dualism of methodological individualism and methodological realism (institutionalism) in sociological theory.
289. Historical-phenomenological and cultural analysis of economic behavior, sociological categories of economic action by M. Weber.
290. Societal determination of economic action in the concept of K. Durkheim.
291. Hermeneutics of logical and non-logical actions in sociology V. Pareto.
292. Praxeological analysis of the economic action of L.Mises.
293. Institutional-functional concept of economic behavior of T. Parsons.
294. Probabilistic-statistical theory of market behavior N. Kondratiev. tt concept
295. Sozialokonomik" by I. Schumpeter.
296. Avtonomov B.C. Man in the mirror of economic theory. M., 1993
297. Akerlof J. Market "lemons". Quality uncertainty and the market mechanism // THESIS No. 5, no. 5, p. 91-104
298. Becker G. Economic analysis and human behavior // THESIS, 1993, v. 1, issue 1, pp. 24-40
299. Weber M. Selected works. M., 1990, p. 602-643
300. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 3-64
301. Veselov Yu.V. Economic Sociology: A History of Ideas. St. Petersburg, 1995
302. Hoffman A.B. Sociology V. Pareto/History of theoretical sociology. T2. M., 1998, p. 22-41
303. Kondratiev N. Main problems of economic statics and dynamics. M. 1991, p. 4071; 104-117.
304. Kravchenko A. I. Sociology of M. Weber: labor and economics. M., 1997, p. 129-156
305. Radaev VV Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 35-50; 64-9571.220313 (2326x3440x2 tiff)5
306. Etzioni A. The Moral Dimension. Toward a New Economics. NY-L., 1990, p. 1-19
307. The Handbook of Economic Sociology./ Ed by N. Smelser, R. Swedberg, Princeton, 1994, p. 3-26
308. Mises L. Human action. Ch. 1966.p. 11-71
309. Schumpeter J. The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism. USA-GB/PVP, 1991, p. 3-98
310. Topic 4. Structure and functions of economic action
311. Weber M. Selected works. M., 1998, p. 602-643
312. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 65-95
313. Kondratiev N.D. The main problems of economic statics and dynamics. M., 1991, p. 40-71; 104-117
314. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology of economic action/Sociology of M. Weber: labor and economics. M., 1997, p. 129-157
315. Naumova N.F. Sociological and psychological aspects of purposeful behavior. M., 1938, p. 78-90
316. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 64-95
317. The Haadbook offèociofogy/ Ed by N. Smelser. R. Swedberg. Princeton, 1994, p. 3-26; 166182
318. Mises L. Human Action. Ch., 1996, p. 11-29; 99-104; 212-231
319. Shumpeter J. The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism. USA-GB., 1991, p. 316-33871.220314 (2317x3434x2 tiff)6
320. Topic 5. The institution of property as a subject of sociological analysis
321. Bebel I. Property, property rights and institutional changes / the problem of property: theory, history, practice. M., 1995, p. 19-39
322. Verkhovin V.Y. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 3-35,96-136
323. Kapelyushnikov R.I. Economic theory of property rights. M., 1990, p. 3-20; 37-42
324. North D. Institutions and Economic Growth: A Historical Introduction // THESIS 1993, V.1, issue 2, p. 69-91
325. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 64-68; 125-154
326. Williamson O. Economic institutions of capitalism. M., 1996, p. 91-126
327. Hayek F. Pernicious arrogance. M., 1992, p. 24-68
328. Hayek F. Individualism and economic order. Ch. 1980.p. 1-33
329 Hodgson G. Economics and Instituons. GB., 1996, p. 145-170
330. Topic 6. Content, structure and functions of production behavior
331. Autonomov B.C. Man in the mirror of economic theory. M., 1993, p. 94-102
332. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 137-187
333. Verkhovin V.I. Social regulation of labor behavior in a production organization. M., 1991, p. 35-78
334. Coase R. The nature of the firm / Theory of the firm. SPb., 1995, p. 11-32
335. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology of M. Weber: labor and economics. M., 1997, p. 81-86
336. Machlup F. Theories of the firm: marginalist, behavioral and managerial / Theory of the firm. SPb., 1995, p. 73-93
337. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 125-18271.220315 (2330x3443x2 tiff)7
338. Simon G. Theory of decision making / Theory of the firm. SPb., 1995, p. 54-72
339. Williamson O. Economic institutions of capitalism. M., 1996, p. 152-177; 433-516
340. Shcherbina V.V. Sociology of organizations. M.5 1996, p. 58-67
341. The Sociology of Firms/ The Handbook of Economic Sociology. Princeton, 1994. P 453-580
342. Topic 7. Economic behavior in the exchange cycle system
343. Nature and functions of social exchange. Market institutions of economic exchange and their evolution. Market and command mechanisms of economic exchange, their characteristics and differences.
344. Subjects, objects and subject of economic exchange. Criteria, meters and calculators of economic exchange equivalence. The main characteristics of economic exchange according to F. Hayek.
345. Blau P. Various points of view on the social structure and their common denominator / American sociological thought. M., 1994
346. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 188-226
347. Turner J. Theory of exchange / The structure of sociological theory. M., 1985, p. 271-384
348. Hayek F. Pernicious arrogance. M., 1992, p. 69-85, 156-183
349. Irwin M., Kasarda J. Trade, Transportation, Spatial Distribution/ The Haudbook of Sociology. Prin., N.Y., 1994, p. 342-367
350. Mises L. Human Action. Ch., 1996, p. 398-478
351. Powell W., Smith-Doerr L. Networks and Economic Life / The Haudbook of Sociology. Prin., N.Y., 1994, p. 368-402 TV iW4clt Ecowowxic
352. Swedberg R. Markets as Social Structures /FPrin., NY., 1994. P 255-282 ®
353. Topic 8. Structure and functions of monetary behavior
354. Money in the system of economic exchange and their functions. The main characteristics of the institution of money in G. Simmel's sociology. The concept of money in the economic theories of L. Mises and F. Hayek.
355. Vasilchuk Yu. Social functions of money // ME and MO, 1995, No. 2, p. 5-22
356. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 297-323,423-444
357. Malakhov B.C. Fundamentals of economic psychology. M., 1992
358. Friedman M. If money spoke. M., 1998, p. 22-43
359. Hayek F. Pernicious arrogance. M., 1992, p. 156-183
360. Hayek F. Private money. M., 1996
361. Dodd N. Monetary Analysis in Sociology/ The Sociology of Money. GB., 1994, p. 152-166
362. Mises L. Human Action. Ch., 1996, p. 212-231; 398-415
363. Simmel G. Philosophy of Money. Boston, 1978, p. 1-53
364. Topic 9. Investment models of economic behavior
365. Blasi J., Cruz D. New owners. M., 1995, p. 263-319
366. Blank I.A. Investment management. Kyiv, 1995, p. 7-35
367. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 324-366
368. Keynes J. Theory of employment, interest and money / Anthology of economic classics. M, 1993, p. 250-264
369. Mirkin Ya.M. Securities and the stock market. M., 1995, p. 321-438
370. Sharp W., Alexander G., Bailey J. Investments. M., 1997, p. 1-16 etc, niivil<,
371. Muzruchi M., Money, Banking, Financial Markets / Haudbook offéociology. Pr., 1994, p. 313341
372. Topic 10. Main characteristics of consumer behavior
373. Avtonomov B.C. Man in the mirror of economic theory. M., 1993, p. 102-114
374. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 227-261
375. Kapelyushnikov R. G. Becker's economic approach to human behavior / USA. EPI, 1993, No. 4, p. 17-32
376. Leibenstein X. The effect of joining the majority, the snob effect and the Veblen effect in the theory of consumer demand / Theory of consumer behavior and demand. SPb., 1996., 1993, p. 304-325
377. Menger K. Foundations of political economy / Austrian school in political economy. M., 1992, p. 38-60
378. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 209-222
379. Rozanova N., Shastiko A. Fundamentals of economic choice. M., 1996, p. 8-62
381. Frank R. Microeconomics and Behavior. N.Y., 1997, p. 57-247
382. Loudon D., Delia Bitta A. Consumer Behavior. N.Y., 1993, p. 1-26, 83-125,221-260
383. Topic 11. Economic behavior in the supply of professional resources
384. Verkhovin VI Professional abilities and labor behavior. M., 1993, p. 3-55
385. Verkhovin VI Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 262 298
386. Marshall A. Principles of economic science. T. III. M., 1993, p. 5-18; 19-41
387. Radaev VV Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 183 209
388. Williamson O. Economic institutions of capitalism. M., 1996, p. 92-121
389. Ehrenberg R., Smith R. Modern labor economics. Theory and state. politics. M., 1996, p.193.240
390. Mises L. Human Action. Ch., 1996, p. 587 634
391. Swedberg R. Markets as Social Structures / Handbook of Economic Sociology. Princ., 1994, p.255.283
392. Tilly C., Tilly Ch. Capitalist Work and Labor Markets / Handbook of Economic Sociology.1. Princ., 1994, p. 283-312
393. Topic 12. Cost-compensatory models of labor behavior.
394. Verkhovin VI Economic sociology. M., 1998, p. 137 187
395. Kravchenko A. I. Sociology of M. Weber: labor and economics. M., 1997, p. 81 86
396. Naumova NF Sociological and psychological aspects of purposeful behavior. M., 1998, p. 8 26
397. Radaev VV Economic sociology. M., 1997, p. 169 182
398. Williamson O. Economic institutions of capitalism. M., 1996, p. 384 435
399. Mises L. Human Action. Ch., 1996, p. 587 634
400. Sorensen A. Firms, Wages, and Incentives / Handbook of Economic Sociology. N.Y., p. 504 -529
401. Topic 13. Structure and functions of entrepreneurial behavior
402. Autonomov B.C. Man in the mirror of economic theory. M., 1993, p. 136-147.
403. Verkhovin V.I. Economic sociology. M.Ya, 1998, p. 367-403.
404. Kondratiev N.D. The main problems of economic statics and dynamics. M., 1991. S. 290-296.
405. Knight F. The concepts of risk and uncertainty // THESIS, 1994, No. 5, p. 12-28.
406. Radaev V. Economic sociology. M., 1997. S. 96-124.
407. Schumpeter J. Theory of economic development. M., 1982, pp. 159-183.
408. Mises L. Human Action. Ch., 1966, p.289-302.
409. Hayek F. "Free" Enterprise and competitive order / Individualism and Economic Order. Ch., 1980. P.107-118.
410. Topic 14. Structure and functions of economic culture.
411. Weber M. Selected works. M., 1990. S. 707-735.
412. Verkhovin V. Economic sociology. M., 1998, pp. 404-444.
413. Verkhovin V. Professional abilities and labor behavior. M, 1993, pp. 85-110.
414. Zaslavskaya T., Ryvkina R. Sociology of economic life. New., 1991, pp. 96-227.
415. Kravchenko A. Sociology of M. Weber: labor and economics. M., 1997, pp. 101-128.
416. Krasovsky Yu. Management of behavior in the firm. M., 1997, pp. 38-57.
417. Naumova N. Sociological and psychological aspects of purposeful behavior. M., 1988, pp. 153-186.
418. Sokolova G. Economic sociology. Minsk, 1998, p. 188-206.
419. Shcherbina V. Sociology of organizations. M., 1996, p.58-60.
420. DiMaggio Culture and Economy /Н<ЫЬоок of Economic Sociology. Prin,f , 1994, p.27-57.
421. Etzioni A. The Moral Dimension. Toward a New Economics. N.Y., 1990, p. 1-19.71.220320 (2337x3447x2 tiff)12
422. I. Exam questions for the course "Economic Sociology"
423. For students of the HSE Faculty of Economics
424. Subject and object of economic sociology
425. Structure and functions of economic behavior
426. Motives of economic behavior
427. Subjects of economic behavior and their characteristics
428. Economic action limits
429. Main characteristics of economic behavior
430. The main factors of specialization of models of economic behavior
431. Risk in the structure of economic behavior
432. Cycles of economic behavior and their main characteristics
433. Basic types of economic behavior and their definitions
434. Structure and functions of production behavior
435. Organizational culture in the production system and its main varieties
436. Labor behavior and its characteristics
437. The institution of property and its functions
438. Elements of property rights and their characteristics
439. Problems of structuring, specification and distribution of elements of property rights
440. Basic models of distributive (distributive) behavior
441. Structure and functions of exchange behavior
442. Subject, object and object of exchange behavior
443. The problem of measuring the equivalence of economic exchange
444. Rational, normative and expressive models of social behavior (according to Habermas)
445. The main characteristics of socio-economic exchange according to Hayek
446. Functions of commercial behavior
447. The process of offering personal (professional) resources
448. Passive models of the supply of resources and their characteristics
449. Active models of the supply of personal resources and their characteristics
450. Cost-compensatory models of behavior
451. Monetary behavior and its main characteristics
452. Rational models of monetary behavior
453. Traditional models of monetary behavior
454. Altruistic models of monetary behavior
455. Affective-irrational models of monetary behavior
456. Basic points of view and definitions of entrepreneurship
457. Main functions of entrepreneurial behavior
458. Levels of specialization of entrepreneurial behavior
459. Profiles of entrepreneurial behavior
460. Socio-cultural features of entrepreneurial behavior
461. Psychology of entrepreneurial activity
462. The effects of "passionarity" and "transgression" in explaining entrepreneurial success
463. Homo economicus models in economic theory and their evolution71.220321 (2309x3428x2 tiff)13
464. Homo economicus models in sociological theories
465. Investment models of economic behavior and their characteristics
466. Objects, subjects and subject of investment behavior
467. Main features of consumer behavior
468. Structure and functions of economic culture.71.220322 (2306x3426x2 tiff)141.. List of term papers and abstracts on economic sociology
469. Economic behavior as a subject of sociological analysis.
470. Maximization principle and its sociological interpretation
471. Homo economicus model as a sociocultural phenomenon.
472. Rational, traditional, emotional-affective and irrational models of economic behavior
473. The institution of property as a subject of sociological analysis.
474. Economic resources as a factor in the specialization of economic behavior
475. Monopoly effects in the sociological dimension
476. Risk in the structure of economic behavior.
477. Subjects of economic behavior and their characteristics
478. Contract as a social institution
479. Economic interest in the structure of economic behavior.
480. Competition as a social problem
481. Consumer models of economic behavior
482. Firm as a socio-economic institution
483. Investment models of economic behavior
484. The concept of an expanding market order F. Hayek.
485. F. Hayek's concept of organic rationality.
486. G. Simon's concept of bounded rationality
487. Existential models of economic behavior J. Shackle.
488. Opportunistic models of economic behavior
489. I. Schumpeter on economic sociology.
490. Institutional Prerequisites for Market Behavior
491. Money as a subject of sociological analysis
492. Innovative models of economic behavior
493. The phenomenon of entrepreneurial behavior and its sociological interpretation
494. Structure and functions of economic culture.27. "Economic imperialism" by G. Becker and his critical analysis
495. Consumer choice as a sociological problem.
496. Family as a contract system.
497. Models of social exchange by T. Parsons
498. Social exchange in the sociology of G. Simmel.
499. Interpretation of money in the sociology of G. Simmel.
500. Models of monetary behavior in the sociology of G. Simmel
501. Models of investment behavior J. Keynes.
502. Models of economic behavior in the system of paternalistic economy J. Kornai.
503. The reflexive model of investment behavior of J. Soros
504. Transitional Models of Economic Behavior (Experience in Eastern Europe)
505. Family-clan organizational culture and its main characteristics
506. The concept of economic behavior N. Kondratiev
507. Professional models of economic behavior
508. Unprofessional models of economic behavior
509. Economic exchange technologies in the investment cycle system 71.220323 (2304x3425x2 tiff)15 M*?
510. Professional stratification in the stock market system
511. The structure of economic action in the sociology of T. Parsons
512. Corporate culture as an object of sociological analysis
513. Market as a social institution and its characteristics
514. Intermediary models of economic behavior
515. The phenomenon of prestigious consumption
516. The concept of "weak" and "strong" social ties M.Granovetter.
517. The theory of "human capital" G. Becker and its interpretation
518. Transactional analysis of O. Williamson and its sociological interpretation
519. Economic stratification as a subject of sociological analysis.
520. F. Hayek's criticism of K. Polanyi's substantive concept.
521. Evolution of models of economic behavior in economic theory.
522. The concept of "homo creativus" D. Foster.
523. The concept of "variable rationality" X. Leibenstan
524. Institutional and Normative Analysis of Economic Behavior by J. Commons
525. The Behavioral Theory of the Firm by R. Simon, R. Cyert and J. March.
526. Fashion in the structure of traditional models of economic behavior.60. "Psychological variables" of economic behavior by V. Yor
527. The problem of the subject of economic behavior
528. The phenomenon of restrictionism in the structure of labor behavior.
529. Ethnic stereotypes in the structure of labor behavior
530. Behavioral interpretation of G. Simmel's institution of property
531. Basic models of distributive behavior (sovereign-distributive model, agency model, functional model, corporate model).
532. Saving behavior and its functions
533. Conjuncture-game models of economic behavior
534. Methods and technologies of risk insurance in the structure of economic behavior
535. Praxeological concept of social behavior of L. Mises
536. The concept of "social economy" J. Schumpeter
537. The role of economic monetary calculations in the praxeology of L.Mises72. "Difficulties" of a market economy according to L. Mises
538. The "agent-principal" problem and methods for its solution
539. The phenomenon of opportunism in the system of contractual relations75. "Non-market economies" and their varieties
540. Time in the structure of economic behavior77. "Network approach" in sociological analysis and its features
First of all, the problem of socio-economic behavior is the subject of study of economic sociology. This is a relatively new area of sociological knowledge, which is successfully developing in the world scientific community, as well as in domestic sociology. Radaev V.V. highlights his approach to the problem of the subject of economic sociology.
The general approach often comes down to the following: basic economic categories are taken (“production”, “distribution”, “market”, “profit”, etc.) and filled with some kind of non-economic content, showing the limitations of “pure economism”. To completely abandon such a sociological reinterpretation of basic economic concepts is hardly possible and hardly expedient. However, one must understand that the absolutization of this approach can turn sociology into an “optional application” to economic theory, and an economic sociologist into a blurry shadow of an economist trying to “correct” and surpass the not entirely successful original. It seems expedient in this situation to choose another path: to follow proper sociological logic, presenting economic sociology as a process of deploying a system of sociological concepts into the plane of economic relations.
The methodological basis of such constructions is the complex interweaving of a number of scientific areas and branches of knowledge, and first of all:
* American new economic sociology and "socio-economics" (M. Granovetter, A. Etzioni and others);
* British industrial sociology and stratification studies (J. Goldthorpe, D. Lockwood and others);
* German classical sociology (K. Marx, M. Weber, W. Sombart);
* Russian economic sociology and sociology of labor (T.I. Zaslavskaya, R.V. Ryvkina and others);
* history of economic sociology (R. Svedberg, N. Smelser, R. Holton).
The first serious attempt to categorize economic sociology as such was made in the works of the Novosibirsk school. It is summarized in the book by T.I. Zaslavskaya and R.V. Ryvkina "Sociology of Economic Life", published in 1991 (almost 30 years after the publication of the book of the same name by N. Smelser). The emphasis is essentially on two topics: "Social Stratification" and "Economic Culture". Since 1986, within the framework of the Novosibirsk school, the teaching of the course "Economic Sociology" was started, which was still under the strong influence of traditional political economy, but at that time, certainly, innovative.
The tradition of sociological analysis of the economic processes of society is based on a behavioral approach. The category of "economic behavior" (the problem of "homo economicus"), which is the basis of both sociological and economic analysis, is at the center of research activity.
M. Weber is considered to be the founder of the behavioral approach in the field of economic sociology. His theory of social action is the fundamental basis for the sociological analysis of the economic processes of society. For M. Weber, who built a typology of economic action, a rationalistic approach is characteristic, which makes it possible to construct an ideal, phenomenologically “pure” pattern of economic behavior characteristic of a certain economic culture (“the spirit of capitalism”).
V. Pareto, another prominent analyst of economic behavior, used a different paradigm to study this phenomenon. Referring economic action to the category of rational (logical), he "deduced" a whole class of non-logical (irrational, affective) models and forms of social behavior based on social standards, habits, stereotypes and traditions.
An analysis of the phenomena and factors of "non-logical" behavior, denoted by the terms "precipitation" and "derivation", revealed to sociologists the significant role of irrational and emotional components of social (economic) behavior, various predispositions, attitudes, prejudices, stereotypes, consciously or unconsciously masked and implemented in "ideologies", "theories" and beliefs.
G. Simmel made an important contribution to clarifying the social essence and nature of economic behavior representative of the period of developing industrial capitalism. He gave a fundamental analysis of the social institution of money as a rationally calculated basis for most human actions, which coordinates them and leads to a "common denominator".
N. Kondratiev, within the framework of his probabilistic-statistical concept of the social sciences, managed to extrapolate the behavioral approach to a wide area of economic phenomena, creatively enriching the concepts of social action by M. Weber and P. Sorokin. The most significant aspect of his concept is the allocation in the structure of economic processes of that social substratum, which is the field of study of sociologists. These are individual, group and mass acts of human behavior and their interaction, which give rise to such a relatively independent area as the economy.
The behavioral analysis of the economic processes of modern society received a productive continuation in the structural-functional approach of T. Parsons and his student N. Smelzer. They gave an institutional and sociocultural interpretation of economic action as a subsystem of social action.
There are several models of economic behavior of individuals that contain mechanisms of social coordination.
The first model, based on the methodology of the English economist and philosopher A. Smith, is based on the recognition of the compensatory role of wages as the basis of the subject's economic behavior. The functioning of the model is determined by five main conditions that “compensate for small monetary earnings in some occupations and balance large earnings in others: 1) the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the occupations themselves; 2) ease and cheapness or difficulty and high cost of teaching them; 3) constancy or inconsistency of occupations; 4) more or less trust given to those persons who deal with them; 5) the probability or improbability of success in them. These conditions determine the balance of real or imagined benefits and costs on which the individual's rational choice is based. The alternatives chosen in each of the five conditions of earning money based on people's inclinations and preferences determine their economic behavior.
An analysis of the economic behavior of an individual, in the context of the methodology of A. Smith, shows that in the domestic economy, in the process of establishing market relations, two basic types of economic behavior of individuals clearly dominate: pre-market and market. The pre-market type of behavior is characterized by the formula “guaranteed income at the price of a minimum of labor costs”, or “minimum income with a minimum of labor costs”. In general, carriers of the pre-market type of behavior are characterized by rejection of the market or a wary attitude towards it, a low assessment of their own ideas about the market economy, a high level of social and psychological tension of a person who is strongly influenced by social stereotypes developed during the years of the Soviet economy.
The market type of behavior is characterized by the formula “maximum income at the price of maximum labor costs”. It implies a high degree of economic activity on the part of the individual, his understanding that the market provides opportunities for improving welfare in accordance with the invested efforts, knowledge, and skills. The actual market type of behavior is just beginning to take shape and to a large extent depends on the course of economic reforms and their compliance with the social expectations of economically active individuals.
The inevitable costs of the formation of the labor market have led to the emergence of another type of economic behavior - pseudo-market. The pseudo-market type of economic behavior is characterized by the formula “maximum income at the cost of minimum labor costs”. The presence of a pseudo-market type of behavior in a particular social system indicates a low level of its development, the absence of a clearly defined concept of this development, which is typical to some extent for developing countries.
The second model, based on the methodology of the American economist P. Heine, proceeds from the fact that the economic way of thinking has four interrelated features: people choose; only individuals choose; individuals choose rationally; all social relations can be interpreted as market relations. These conditions create a certain balance of real or imagined benefits and costs on which the rational choice of the individual is based. In making this choice, the individual takes the action that will bring him, in accordance with his expectations, the greatest net benefit. At the same time, the more serious the economic rationale for the choice, the more likely it is to be rational.
The necessary properties-limitations of the economic theory of P. Heine are, firstly, the recognition of the unconditional rationality of man; secondly, the absolutization of rational choice; thirdly, focusing on the possibility of making a choice by a single individual. In making rational choices based on the expectation of a net benefit, individuals take certain actions predicted by others. When the proportion between the expected benefit and the expected cost of an action increases, people do it more often, if it decreases, less often. The fact that almost everyone prefers more money to less makes the whole process immensely easier; money here is like a lubricant essential to the mechanism of social cooperation. Moderate changes in monetary costs and monetary benefits in any given case may induce a large number of people to change their behavior in such a way that it will be better aligned with the actions of other people taking place at the same time. This is the main mechanism of cooperation between members of society, allowing them to ensure the satisfaction of their needs, using the means available for this.
The limited explanatory possibilities of P. Heine's economic theory are overcome in the course of creating a sociologized model of economic behavior. The latter includes: first, actions determined by collective choice; secondly, the irrational choices of individuals, which often take place in life and are associated with the presence of components of the unconscious in the structure of the human psyche; thirdly, actions determined by economic interests and social stereotypes. According to this model, the choice of individuals in a real situation is determined by: the state of balance between rational and emotional in economic thinking; the mobility of the balance between the normative and the individual in the social stereotype; and finally, deeper reasons (often beyond their control) - their economic interests. In pursuing their economic interests, people adapt to each other's behavior, following the accepted rules of the game, adapting to a changing situation, striving to get the maximum net benefit (minus costs) as a result of their choices.
An analysis of the economic behavior of individuals in the context of P. Heine's methodology makes it possible to create a typology of the economic behavior of individuals based, for example, on the assessment by various groups of the unemployed of what their former profession meant to them as a value. The analysis revealed, on this basis, the strategies of pragmatic, professional and indifferent behavior of people who have lost their jobs. The strategy of pragmatic behavior is formed on the basis of the target setting with which the graduate graduates (and the unemployed graduated) from school, vocational school, secondary school, university - to achieve material well-being and make a career. The pragmatic type of behavior, as a rule, is inherent in different educational groups and almost does not depend on gender. At the same time, it significantly increases with age and is three times more pronounced in the older age groups than in the group under 30 years old. This type of behavior is closest to the actual market type.
The strategy of professional behavior comes from the installation to get an interesting job in the future. This type of behavior is most closely related to the level of education of individuals. Paradoxically, in the current transitional period, the situation is such that the more years it took for education, the less horizontal mobility the individual has, and, consequently, the worse his social well-being.
The strategy of indifferent behavior comes from the fact that you just need to get an education. This type of behavior is almost unrelated to the level of education and sex of individuals. It has little to do with age, has no clear subjective characteristics and trends in its changes. He is very susceptible to the influence (both positive and negative) of the entire social development and the specific social situation.
Each of the considered models contains the required number of system components, the interaction of which creates a stable structure of types of economic behavior of individuals. The action of each model of economic behavior is subject to a certain social mechanism for regulating economic relations, which opens up the possibility of scientific management of them, increases the reliability of predictive estimates and creates the preconditions for a progressive change in practice.
Within the framework of the concept of economic behavior, social phenomena, including changes in the unemployment rate, can be explained as a consequence of the changing ratio of expected benefits and costs. Thus, the unemployment rate consists of a whole range of decisions that are made by both those who offer their labor and those who demand it. Obviously, they all take into account the expected benefits and possible costs as a result of making their own decisions. Different levels of unemployment among different population groups reflect not only differences in the demand for people's services, but also variations in the costs associated with different people finding, starting or continuing their work. A real understanding of the social mechanisms for the inclusion of various categories of the population in the labor market allows government bodies to balance passive and active social policy measures in relation to different social groups in the context of emerging market relations.
In sociological science there is no strict classification of various types of economic behavior. This is explained by the variety of theoretical macro- and micro-approaches in the analysis of various phenomena and levels of the economic life of society, their multidimensionality and structural complexity; the presence of many theoretical approaches within the framework of certain sociological and economic concepts.
Economic sociology seeks to apply sociological theory and sociological research to the complex of phenomena associated with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods and services. Thus, a simple scheme can be drawn up for the sociological analysis of economic behavior.
We can distinguish the following main types of economic behavior implemented in various phases of the reproduction cycle: distributive (distributive), production, exchange and consumer. (This scheme is very arbitrary, since these types of economic behavior do not appear in their pure form.)
In fact, distributive models are behavioral elements of the many-sided institution of ownership, which demonstrate many options for access to economic resources, the right to control them. Distributive (distributive) behavior reflects in its main components the functional and normative prescriptions of the institution of property and those constitutionally enshrined legal regimes that set the principles and framework for its implementation. It ensures the connection of various subjects with economic resources, determines the rate and measure of appropriation of the useful properties of these resources, as well as the mechanisms and methods for their redistribution from one user to another.
In accordance with the degree of access to resources and the degree of control over the receipt of benefits from their turnover, three main models of distributive behavior can be distinguished: economic, agency, functional.
The economic model characterizes the economic behavior of entities that are the owners of certain economic resources.
The agency model of distributive behavior is implemented by various subjects of economic behavior, which, on behalf of the owners, provide legal, economic and organizational control over the actions of persons who have access to the object of someone else's property in order to realize, first of all, the owner's interest and, accordingly, the effective circulation of economic resources.
The functional model of distributive behavior is characteristic of entities that use and benefit on a contractual or other basis from the useful properties of economic resources owned by other persons.
Production behavior is associated primarily with the accumulation, concentration of material, technological, intellectual, organizational and other resources, their combination and combination in order to obtain benefits with fixed consumer properties and profit (income) from their circulation on the market. It should be noted that, first of all, economic values are produced, which in one case may be associated with the material substrate, and in the other - not associated with it.
Two important aspects must be taken into account. The first aspect concerns the integration of human resources and is manifested in the functioning of institutional mechanisms for their integration. This issue is considered by the sociology of organizations. The second aspect concerns the specifics of the professional actions of many people who, for various reasons, are included in the production process and implement many programs and models of labor behavior. This problematic is considered by the sociology of labor, industrial sociology, and so on.
It is possible to identify many chains and schemes of social exchange that arise in the system of human interaction, in which various exchange criteria, evaluation methods and meters are used to determine the value, fairness, equivalence and guaranteed distribution of benefits. There are various measures of social exchange. Some of them (for example, money) are universal and applicable in evaluating a variety of situations and actions, while others operate only in certain group, sociocultural and personal contexts.
Economic exchange is one of the forms of social exchange implemented in the sphere of economic life. Its basis is the interaction of people (economic entities) redistributing various economic resources in the structure of market relations in order to obtain benefits (profit, income, remuneration).
The traditional scheme of economic exchange "production - consumption" is clearly insufficient to explain the movement of economic resources from producers to consumers. The process of supplying produced goods is possible only if it is beneficial to the one who produces and sells. It is the profitability of human activity, according to F. Hayek, that encourages many to choose such an occupation in which their efforts are more productive and pay off accordingly.
Consumer behavior ensures the extraction of economic benefits from commodity circulation and the appropriation of their useful properties in order to meet the numerous needs of a person.
We have in mind a narrower understanding of consumption and the corresponding type of economic activity, which are associated with the process of subsistence of households (families and individuals). The "appropriation" of the useful properties of economic resources in the production system is traditionally described in sociology in terms of labor behavior.
Within consumer behavior, a number of phases can be distinguished that reflect its features:
- the consumption phase itself, within which there is a withdrawal of consumer properties of various resources at the disposal of households;
ь purchasing behavior, a relatively independent element of consumer behavior associated with the acquisition of various goods and their substitutes included in the economic turnover;
l information retrieval behavior focused on meeting the effective demand of consumer cells (search for goods);
ь information retrieval behavior associated with ensuring and maintaining a certain level of well-being (income) of consumer cells (search for income);
ь economic behavior, ensuring the coordination of all consumer actions in accordance with the tasks and target functions of households, as well as the implementation of the functions of their legal and social protection;
b distributive behavior associated with the allocation of members
ь consumer cell with various resources owned by it;
l functional behavior associated with the operation of the main and auxiliary means of life support of households;
l savings behavior aimed at reserving liquid funds and other assets owned by the consumer.
Speaking about the specifics of "consumer behavior", one can single out a number of factors that significantly change the structure (proportions) of consumption in the direction of the dominance of certain consumer preferences. They demonstrate the objective features of the functioning of households and determine the specific balance of their consumption, depending on:
* lifestyle;
* stage of development at which they are;
* demographic characteristics, number of family members;
* dominant social standards reflecting their socio-cultural specifics, etc.
Naturally, the structure of consumer behavior is inseparable from specific socio-cultural matrices that determine the dominants and priorities of consumer behavior, their functional and ritual-symbolic characteristics. Consumption is more a fact of social habits, traditions and stereotypes than of purely rational actions.
It is possible to formulate general principles and methods for implementing rational models of consumer behavior, which are based on maintaining a balance of income (budget constraints) and necessary spending (consumption).
Rational models of consumer behavior can be recognized as those that:
Ш do not go beyond the boundaries of real income;
Ш contribute to the creation of an optimal balance of expenses and receipts in accordance with the existing and rationally dosed consumption structure;
Ш provide control and regulation of the structure of consumption and the corresponding spending, not exceeding the limits of real income;
Ш establish the balance of income and expenditure items of consumer budgets;
Ш contribute to the reservation of part of the funds for the purpose of insurance against unforeseen situations and circumstances;
Ш provide an optimal balance of meeting the needs in accordance with the prevailing standards of living and lending to the consumer budget at the expense of future income.
The rationality of consumer behavior models is also determined by the fact that they must ensure the protection and reproduction of a certain system of values, on the basis of which specific consumer cells function. We are talking about a system of traditions and patterns of behavior that represent the social matrix of households, making it a concrete and relatively independent cultural unit.
Having understood the essence of economic behavior and its types through the prism of sociological knowledge, it is necessary to find out what constitutes socio-economic behavior.
Economic behavior - behavior associated with the enumeration of economic alternatives for the purpose of rational choice, i.e. choice that minimizes costs and maximizes net benefits. The prerequisites for economic behavior are economic consciousness, economic thinking, economic interests, social stereotypes.
Considering the category of "economic behavior", we set the task of its sociological interpretation, i.e., preserving the principles of economic analysis, to fill this category (as far as possible) with content that is close to real human behavior with all the contradictions, problems and "irrational residues", which are characteristic of him.
It can be stated that economic behavior is the "social substance" of all processes, which together constitute what is called the economic life of society.
Thus, economic behavior is a system of social actions that, firstly, are associated with the use of economic values (resources) of different functions and purposes, and, secondly, are focused on obtaining benefits (benefits, rewards, profits) from their appeal.
N. Kondratiev gives a general interpretation and description of social actions in the system of economic life of society and those entities (economic entities) that implement them. All business entities:
§ distinguish valuable things from non-valuable ones;
§ no matter what views they hold and no matter what goals they strive for, as a rule, they defend their personal economic interests or defend as their own those interests that they represent;
§ more or less subjectively assess those goods with which they have to deal, but their subjective assessments are always associated with the objectively existing valuation of these goods in society and which is expressed in prices;
§ able to calculate, to a greater or lesser extent, to calculate, and therefore see where they are expected by the probable benefit, and where - losses;
§ want, depending on individual conditions and abilities, to act in order to obtain greater benefits and prevent losses;
§ actually capable of making mistakes in their calculations, and, consequently, in their actions.
Economic behavior as a social phenomenon is the subject of study of both economics and sociology.
Sociology, going beyond strictly defined categories of economic theory, focuses its attention on factors, conditions, social institutions, situations, as well as on various social subjects operating in their context that realize their specific, including economic, interests. In other words, the sociologist focuses on models of social behavior in connection with the application and explanation of the principle of maximizing results and minimizing costs, as well as those sociocultural institutions and their accompanying social stimulants or constraints that make it possible or significantly limit the rational use of various economic resources (personal, technological, organizational, financial, information, etc.).
The basis of social behavior of the economic type is a diverse system of norms and rules that reflect the functional and other characteristics of various market elements. These norms and rules are obligatory for all legally acting subjects of economic behavior and are legally enshrined at the state level, in various agreements between people, in the traditions and norms of everyday life, as well as in the functional program of economic resources (for example, rules and norms for handling money, purchase and sale, investment, lending, property, circulation of securities, rent, etc.).
Summing up, the following can be emphasized. The problem of socio-economic behavior is the subject of study of economic sociology. At the same time, it is not enough to simply take basic economic categories and fill them with some non-economic content. Economic sociology should be presented as a process of deploying a system of sociological concepts into the plane of economic relations.
The tradition of sociological analysis of the economic processes of society is based on a behavioral approach, which focuses on the category of "economic behavior" (M. Weber, V. Pareto, G. Simmel). N. Kondratiev managed to extrapolate the behavioral approach to a wide area of economic phenomena. The main idea of his concept is the allocation in the structure of economic processes of that social substratum, which is the field of study of sociologists. These are individual, group and mass acts of people's behavior and their interaction, which give rise to such a relatively independent area as the economy.
The most well-known are two models of the economic behavior of individuals that contain mechanisms of social coordination. A. Smith's model is based on the recognition of the compensatory role of wages as the basis of the subject's economic behavior; there are two basic types of economic behavior of individuals: pre-market and market.
P. Heine's model substantiates the need for a certain balance of real or imaginary benefits and costs, on which the rational choice of an individual is based, which should bring him the greatest net benefit.
Within the framework of the concept of economic behavior, social phenomena, including changes in the unemployment rate, can be explained as a consequence of the changing ratio of expected benefits and costs.
Economic sociology seeks to apply sociological theory and sociological research to the complex of phenomena associated with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods and services.
The following main types of economic behavior are distinguished: Distributive (distributive) reflects in its main components the functional and regulatory requirements of the institution of property and those constitutionally enshrined legal regimes that set the principles and framework for its implementation. Within the framework of this model, three more models of economic behavior are distinguished: economic model, agency and functional.
Production behavior is associated with the accumulation, concentration of various resources, their combination and combination in order to obtain goods with fixed consumer properties and profit (income) from their circulation in the market.
Exchange behavior ensures the movement of various economic goods (goods, services, information) in the market on the basis of accounting and comparing their value.
Consumer behavior ensures the extraction of economic benefits from commodity circulation and the appropriation of their useful properties in order to meet the numerous needs of a person. Consumer behavior is realized in certain phases and is a fact of social habits, traditions and stereotypes rather than purely rational actions.
Economic behavior is the "social substance" of all processes, which together constitute what is called the economic life of society.
Socio-economic behavior is a system of social actions that, firstly, are associated with the use of economic values (resources) of different functions and purposes, and, secondly, are focused on obtaining benefits (benefits, rewards, profits) from their appeals. It is based on a system of norms and rules that reflect the functional and other characteristics of various market elements.
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Economic behavior and economic consciousness, assubject of sociological study
Patlasova Elena
Plan
1. Correlation between the concepts of economic consciousness and economic behavior
2. Typology of economic behavior
Literature
1. Correlation between the concepts of economic behavior andeconomic consciousness
It is known that the turnover of economic values (goods, services, information) is based on numerous and diverse in nature and content, cyclically renewing individual, group and mass acts of human behavior.
Economic behavior is a system of social actions, which, firstly, are associated with the use of economic values (resources) of different functions and purpose, and, secondly, are focused on making a profit (reward) from their circulation.
Economic behavior as a social phenomenon is the subject of study of economics and sociology. In the first case, attention is focused on which of the rare productive resources people and society, with or without money, choose for the production of goods and distribution for consumption. Economics analyzes production, methods of organizing resources and the distribution of wealth, explaining the influence of "pure" economic variables on each other. Sociology studies the conditions, situations, socio-cultural institutions and social subjects that realize their interests, including economic ones. economic consciousness behavior social
The subject of the sociologist's attention is the models of social behavior associated with the application and interpretation of the principle of maximizing the result and minimizing costs, as well as those institutions that make it possible or significantly limit the rational use of economic resources.
Each person, regardless of status, is constantly (directly or indirectly) included in various sectors of the economic and productive life of society, is a participant in the transformation of economic values. He creates, consumes, exchanges, appropriates them.
Carrying out economic activities, a person consciously or unconsciously determines his fate in the economic life of society, with varying degrees of success, calculates his costs and benefits. In the strict sense, economic behavior refers to those social actions whose structure and content include simple and complex elements of economic life (N. Kondratiev). The latter have value, natural and combined (value and natural) expression. Simple and complex elements of economic life are included in the system of market relations and relations through the specific actions of people who bring market elements into an active state, pursuing their own interests, often opposite in motives and content.
The social behavior of the economic type is based on a system of norms and rules that reflect the functional and other characteristics of various market elements. They are obligatory for all legally acting subjects of economic behavior. These norms and rules are enshrined legally at the state level, in agreements between people, in the traditions and stereotypes of everyday life, as well as in the functional program of the market elements themselves.
Subjects implementing various models of economic behavior are prescribed functionally and normatively only the initial (necessary and acceptable for given market conditions) framework and restrictions. Within the specified limits, they can build, depending on their goals, intentions, abilities, experience and competence, various combinations of market elements and related decisions and actions. The number of combinations is enormous, it all depends on the calculation of available resources, as well as the ability to foresee the consequences of planned actions.
The assertion that economic sociology pursues a line of applying sociological theory and sociological research to the complex of phenomena associated with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods and services serves as a general premise for theoretical reasoning on the issue of interest to us. Nevertheless, it can be accepted as the simplest scheme for differentiation and sociological analysis of economic behavior. Based on these prerequisites, we single out the main types of economic behavior implemented in different phases of the reproduction cycle: production, exchange, distribution and consumption. Of course, this scheme is very conditional, since the named types of economic behavior do not appear in their pure form. As a rule, certain subjects included in the reproduction cycle are polyfunctional: they simultaneously participate in the production of economic values, exchange them, accumulate, consume, etc. In addition to the main one, they implement many models and specialized programs of economic behavior, exchanging resources and information with the market environment, combining them in accordance with their target functions, budgetary constraints and competence.
Each participant in economic behavior (a firm, a consumer unit, a joint-stock company, a farm, etc.) seeks to ensure the autonomy of its existence based on the search for an optimal scheme of interaction with the market environment. We note that autonomy is understood by us as a natural setting for freedom of choice when searching for the optimal combination of available resources in order to maximize the benefits from their circulation.
However, in conditions of market uncertainty, the actions of subjects cannot be reproduced constantly on the basis of rational choice. A positive balance of expenses and income is not always achieved.
Any economically expedient action is associated with the risk of the manufacturer, investor, buyer, seller, owner, etc. Even in standard situations, a negative result is possible. This is due to the subjective limitations of decision makers (for example, their incompetence); lack of complete reliable information about the parameters of the market environment, the actions of partners and competitors; dysfunctional behavior within the organization (firm, enterprise).
It is obvious that the structure and specialization of subjects of economic behavior, even those functioning in the same phase of the reproduction cycle, vary over a huge range. This is due to the fact that the parameters of economic behavior differ significantly depending on: the nature of economic resources put into market circulation; ways to benefit from their treatment; degree and risk factors that affect the achievement of a positive result; the duration of the cycle "costs - reimbursement"; accuracy of calculations (calculation) of the expected and planned result; ways of distributing income, etc.
2. Typetheology of economic behavior
Along with the main types of economic behavior, the following models and varieties can be distinguished: monetary, economic, redistributive, purchasing, marketing, commercial, marketing, intermediary, market-gaming, entrepreneurial, speculative, non-normative, etc. Here are brief characteristics of the most important types of economic behavior and some their modifications.
Production behavior is associated primarily with the accumulation, concentration of material, technological, intellectual, organizational and other resources, their combination to obtain benefits with fixed consumer properties and profit (income) from circulation in the market. This very simplified interpretation, of course, does not reveal the whole complex of factors that characterize the behavior of subjects acting as commodity producers. The most significant is that production behavior is primarily "behavior based on the search for and maintenance of such input-output combinations that maximize the difference between income and costs."
Thus, in a market economy, the decisions, motivations and actions of producers are aimed at finding optimal combinations of cost and non-value labor factors. This allows you to increase profits in a given specific period of time, if the value and the supply-demand ratio for manufactured products are determined.
A fairly rigorous reconstruction of rational models of production behavior, presented in microeconomics, is "a direct translation into a clear mathematical language of the problems of choosing the optimal solution" . However, it does not explain many factors that determine the real behavior of economic entities in a stochastic and multidimensional socio-cultural space. Their actions are not always and not necessarily based on a rational choice of optimal solutions. There are limitations of an objective and subjective order: social stereotypes and traditions, extreme situations, personal and sociocultural factors, etc., which deform rational schemes and models of economic behavior, turning them into an unattainable ideal. Obviously, the sociological analysis of production behavior is much broader than rational schemes and reconstructions of microeconomics, which (in verbal form or using mathematical tools) offer different models of maximization.
exchange behavior ensures the movement of economic goods, services, information through market channels on the basis of accounting and comparison of their value. The measure of the relative rarity of circulating goods is fixed in prices and established in the process of mutual adjustment in the market (F. Hayek). It controls the actions of subjects acting in relation to each other as sellers and buyers.
It should be noted that the turnover of economic values is not only and not so much a physical process that unfolds in time and space, but rather the movement of dispersed, heterogeneous information that "crystallizes" in prices and helps to make decisions. Benefits (goods) oriented to specific needs are produced and circulated mainly in the case when it is beneficial to both the seller and the buyer. The intensity of the movement of economic values in a certain sense is directly proportional to the mutual benefit from their turnover.
It is possible to identify the most typical models and their modifications, which characterize the functional specificity and multidimensionality of behavioral programs implemented in the exchange of economic values.
Commercial behavior associated with the movement and supply of various goods based on the search for information about their relative value and the use of this information to obtain a certain benefit from their turnover. An extended version of classic commercial behavior is marketing. The function of the latter is to create conditions and situations that affect the positive motivation of consumers and buyers, the formation of a favorable infrastructure and market conditions.
As part of exchange behavior there are many relatively independent models of purchasing and marketing behavior, models of supply and demand for economic resources (for example, labor), etc. We can consider models of supply and demand for personal resources, models of behavior of consumers and producers (including search, coordination, discrimination, queues, etc.), direct contract models based on the mutual benefit of different agents of the market process, etc.
monetary behavior provides for the exchange of benefits between subjects on the basis of the use of liquid funds through a comparative assessment of the rarity of these benefits and the redistribution of benefits. Monetary behavior is a kind of "lubrication" of market processes, which helps to minimize transaction and other costs associated with the functioning of the exchange. Sociological analysis makes it possible to rationalize the motivational and sociocultural matrix of monetary behavior at the individual, group and mass levels. Based on the study of the functions of symbolic vehicles of social exchange and interaction, one of which is money, it helps to understand the mechanisms of value communication between people.
Intermediary Behavior- a special kind of communicative actions related to the exchange of price and other information between at least three agents of the market process (for example, a seller, a buyer and a third party that binds their economic interests, pursuing their own benefit). The effective implementation of certain economic tasks is based on the search, receipt, storage and transmission of confidential information. The latter is unevenly distributed and is a very rare good. Naturally, we are talking about market information, which is valuable only at a certain time and in a certain place.
distribution(distributive) behavior ensures the connection of market entities with economic resources, determines the rate and measure of appropriation of useful properties and benefits from their circulation. The market in this sense can be viewed as an endless process of redistribution of a huge mass of economic resources through a network of exchange and circulation, where many subjects permanently acquire and lose the right to control certain goods.
The specificity, functional and motivational features of distributive models depend on the measure of access to resources and, accordingly, the degree of control over obtaining benefits from their turnover. There are three main modifications: economic (sovereign-distributive), functional-distributive and commission-distributive.
First model(economic) characterizes the social behavior of subjects that have an absolute or preferential right to benefit from the use of resources they own.
Second model(functional-distributive) is inherent in entities that use and benefit on a contractual or other basis from the useful properties of economic resources owned by others. A typical example of economic behavior of this kind is demonstrated by persons employed by the employer.
Third model(commission and distribution) is implemented by entities that, on behalf of the owners, provide administrative, legal and other control over
actions of persons having direct or indirect access to the subject of someone else's property.
The listed models do not reveal the whole variety of social behavior of economic entities in the distribution cycle system. In reality, under developed market conditions, there are a lot of social invariants that reflect "changeable and very complex" bundles of powers ", the most effective combinations of which for all spheres have not yet been found" .
consumer behavior is aimed at extracting economic benefits from commodity circulation and appropriating their useful properties in order to satisfy numerous needs. The phase of consumption is typical for the majority of subjects using certain resources for their own needs. This is the most complex functional correlation of many factors that determine the dynamics and structure of the inclusion and exclusion of economic resources from commodity circulation in accordance with the ability (or inability) of economic entities to find the optimal balance with the market environment. They implement a range of functions and behavioral programs that enable them to perform these activities with varying degrees of success. This process is correlated with income levels, consumption standards and a measure of competence (ability) to calculate their costs and benefits.
In the consumer cycle system, several interconnected levels are distinguished, each of which has relative independence and specific functional specifics. For example, purchasing behavior associated with the search and acquisition of specific goods (goods) or their substitutes that allow you to satisfy instant, short-term, medium-term and long-term needs; behavior aimed at finding appropriate incomes that provide the required standard and quality of life.
It is also possible to analyze relatively autonomous models of consumer behavior associated with control over the rational use of consumer goods included in the permanent or variable property fund of an economic unit (family). Of interest are "balance" models of behavior that contribute to maintaining and maintaining the balance of economic entities with the external economic environment. It should be noted that some models of distributive and consumer behavior complement each other.
A brief description of the main models of economic behavior can be expanded.
The most important aspect is the allocation in the structure of economic processes implemented along the entire "perimeter" of the reproduction cycle, the social substratum, which is the area of research for sociologists. This theoretical procedure was consistently implemented by N.D. Kondratiev, The conceptual approach applied by him made it possible to establish and single out the non-economic components of the actual economic processes. First of all, these are individual, group and mass acts of people's behavior and their interaction, which give rise to such a relatively independent area of social life as the economy. Obviously, not all social actions implemented at different structural levels of the organization of society are substratum in relation to economic processes and institutions.
According to Kondratiev, these are only (or mainly) those actions and behavioral acts that realize economic interest or are indirectly transformed into one. Economic processes and institutions are based on social actions of a specific nature. These are acts of behavior (a chain of acts) implemented in the process of satisfying human needs or aimed at creating conditions and means to satisfy them. The structure and content of social behavior of this type are extremely diverse. It can proceed according to different schemes of motivation, including utilitarian, hedonistic, emotional, traditional, normative-imperative, etc.
Many economists of different schools and trends have explanatory and descriptive schemes of economic behavior models. However, for the most part they are fragmentary, discrete and are used to build and illustrate individual hypotheses and concepts. A vivid example is the motives of the monetary behavior of John. M. Keynes, which underlie his theory of demand for money.
In our opinion, N.D. Kondratiev is one of the few who paid special attention not to individual components of economic behavior, but developed a holistic sociological concept. It has not lost its relevance and can serve as a reliable means of rational reconstruction of various models that are implemented in all phases of the reproduction cycle. For example, it can be used to carry out a sociological inversion of micro- and macroeconomic models of economic theory, described in a verbalized or mathematical form.
An important aspect of the sociological analysis of economic processes is the study of the mutual determination of the substrate behavioral layer, various components and structures of the economic life of society. The measure and intensity of these social interactions, their vector and tension can be assessed by studying the axiological matrix of economic behavior. The latter gives an idea of its socio-cultural components, uniting the subjects of social actions and economic elements into a single complex, and in various combinations and combinations.
Thus, the study of economic culture as the most important determinant of social behavior is the central problem of economic sociology.
Economic culture is a stable system of normative standards, patterns of behavior, cultural standards, traditions, social habits and skills that reproduce the dominant ways and methods of control over economic resources. The so-called socio-cultural matrix of economic behavior, formed in certain specific historical conditions, is preserved in the stereotypes of mass consciousness. The latter acquire a relatively autonomous existence and begin to have a reverse effect on the functioning of economic institutions. This problem is currently attracting close attention of sociologists.
The subject area of economic sociology should include studies of the subject side of social actions unfolding in the structure of economic processes. The analysis of the subjects of economic behavior, their motivations, preferences, abilities and interests is very relevant. Of particular importance is the sociological interpretation of such concepts and categories as firm, manufacturer, partnership, partnership, joint-stock company, household, etc. These concepts reflect the functional and stratification characteristics of real subjects (individuals, groups, organizations, families, etc.) that are included in the economic life of society.
In conclusion, let us name another important problem of sociological analysis - the study and measurement of the economic stratification of society, which is associated with the functioning of the institution of property and its modifications. Models of social behavior that reflect the degree of exclusivity of access to goods, types of legal regimes and different combinations of elements of property rights determine the effectiveness of the inclusion of subjects in the economic structure of society, the limits of social reproduction, the degree and vector of freedom of their social behavior.
V.V. Radaev three main approaches that defined the advanced frontiers of economic sociology in the late 90s - the sociology of rational choice, the network approach, the new institutionalism. French economic sociology was singled out as a separate direction. In our country, in Soviet times, sociological research in the field of economics was quite popular, although it was carried out within the framework of the Marxist sociology of labor. According to V.V. Radaev, economic sociology in Russia is "doomed to success", and the most promising direction is the culture-oriented new institutionalism.
The institutional sociological approach, according to R.V. Chernyaeva (Mine), is effective in the analysis of social costs in the economy. The category "costs" is usually regarded as purely economic. But from the standpoint of the new institutionalism, the modern economic system is dominated by costs, the economic mechanism for minimizing which is based on trust and social interaction. As for the methodology for calculating social costs, today it is obvious that there is a need to develop new indicators to characterize people's satisfaction not only with material, but also with non-material conditions of existence.
E.V. Kapustkina (St. Petersburg) examines the elements of the conscious and unconscious in economic behavior. The term "unconscious" is used to characterize individual and group behavior, the true goals and consequences of which are not recognized. Moreover, the unawareness of economic behavior does not necessarily mean its irrationality. Thus, actions brought to automatism are, of course, rational, since they contribute to the achievement of the goal with minimal energy costs. The report revealed elements of the unconscious at all stages of the economic cycle (production, distribution, exchange and consumption). The proportion of unconscious actions at each of these stages is different. R.V. Karapetyan (St. Petersburg) devoted his report to the analysis of the social evolution of labor consciousness. In parallel with the development of human consciousness, his awareness of his activity also developed. At a certain stage in the development of tools, conditions are formed under which, in the minds of people, their dependence on the forces of nature is replaced by social dependence. The image of labor as a dependent activity is being formed. Over time, freedom of choice decreases (through the division of labor, professionalization), and social dependence steadily increases. The social environment forms in the mind an understanding of the need to work, since a person outside of work is a person outside of society.
Yu.A. Sventsitskaya (St. Petersburg), based on the study of texts of conspiracies concerning monetary relations, showed the presence of magical practices as elements of primitive consciousness in modern economic life. She was supported by G.P. Zibrova (St. Petersburg), from the point of view of which the phenomenon of man has not yet been studied, the influence of one person on another can be very significant, which allows us to use the practical experience of the spiritual life of our ancestors even today. According to V.V. Skitovich (St. Petersburg), stable forms of behavior, incl. economic, are reflected in folklore, in particular, in proverbs. The section also presented new areas of research within the framework of economic sociology - the sociology of financial behavior (O.E. Kuzina, Moscow), the sociology of property (E.E. Tarando, St. Petersburg). The Department of Economic Sociology of St. Petersburg State University also conducts research within the framework of the sociology of distribution, the sociology of exchange, and the sociology of consumption. The sociological analysis of trademarks on the basis of post-structuralism also belongs to the sphere of the latter. Differences between a product and a brand were analyzed in the presentation by A. Dixel (Hamburg, Germany). N.I. Boenko (St. Petersburg) proposed to supplement the currently prevailing civilizational approach to the analysis of the evolution of the economic sphere with a new, synergistic-organizational approach.
It is well known that the sociology of labor was one of the most, if not the most developed branch of Soviet sociology. Within its framework, a vast experience of empirical research has been accumulated, the object of which was labor consciousness and labor behavior, which can be considered as one of the forms of economic consciousness and economic behavior. Therefore, the organizers of the Congress seemed quite justified to have the opportunity to consider the declared topic from both positions - economic sociology and the sociology of labor. Some of it succeeded, some of it didn't. According to some representatives of the sociology of labor, economic sociology is a science out of touch with life, so there are no points of contact between the two areas, and there cannot be. This division seems to us far-fetched. Thus, for example, the object of study of the sociology of labor in the last decade has become not only the direct productive labor of workers and managerial labor at industrial enterprises, but also entrepreneurial activity. Meanwhile, the analysis of entrepreneurship traditionally belongs to the field of sociology of entrepreneurship, one of the components of economic sociology. Another problem that caused a lively discussion at the section was the question of the method of economic sociology. There are clearly two main approaches. The first, interdisciplinary, is adhered to by Yu.V. Veselov. In his opinion, there is a need to create a new social mega-science that would unite the possibilities of all the humanities. Only in this way is progress possible in the analysis of all spheres of social life, including economic ones. As proof of this thesis, he referred to the speech of H. Schrader (Magdeburg, Germany), who, at the intersection of economic sociology and economic anthropology, conducted a study of St. Petersburg pawnshops as one of the strategies for the survival of the city's population. This approach was generally supported by E.L. Pinteleyeva (Tver). She believes that it is necessary to develop a new method for the analysis of economic actions, combining at least the methods of economic sociology and economic psychology.
Literature
1. Kondratiev N.D. The main problems of economic statics and dynamics. M.: Nauka, 1991. S. 104-111.
2. Samuelson P. Economics. T. 17 M.: VNIISI, 1992. S. 7.
3. Smelzer N.J. Sociology of economic life//American sociology. M.: Progress, 1972. S. 188-189.
4. Leontiev V. Economic Essays. M.: Politizdat, 1990. S. 49.
5. Hayek F. Pernicious arrogance. M: News, 1992. S. 173.
6. Verkhovin V.I. Structure and functions of monetary behavior // Sotsiol. research 1993. No. 10. S. 67--73.
7. Sorokin P. System of sociology. T. 1. Syktyvkar: Komi books. publishing house, 1991. S. 126-127.
8. Zaslavskaya T.I., Ryvkina R.V. Sociology of economic life. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1991, pp. 196-227.
9. V.I. Verkhovin Economic Behavior as a Subject of Sociological Analysis // Sociological Research 2004 No. 5
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The tradition of sociological analysis of the economic processes of society is based on behavioral approach. The focus of research is on the category "economic behavior"(problem "homo economicus"), which is the basis of both sociological and economic analysis.
M. Weber is considered to be the founder of the behavioral approach in the field of economic sociology. His theory of social action is the fundamental basis for the sociological analysis of the economic processes of society. M. Weber studied in detail one of the most important modifications of a rational (purposeful) action, i.e. economic behavior, setting the task of studying the "internal" elements of rational action: goal, means, result, planning, calculation (calculation), maximization of benefits (benefits), alternativeness and freedom of choice, as well as those institutional, axiological (substantial rationality) and resource- functional conditions (exchange, money, contract, competition) that concretize, specialize economic action and make it possible within a certain socio-cultural matrix.
M. Weber, who built a typology of economic action, is characterized by a rationalistic approach, which makes it possible to construct an ideal, phenomenologically “pure” pattern of economic behavior characteristic of a certain economic culture (“the spirit of capitalism”)*.
* Weber M. Economy and Society: An Online of Interpretive Sociology. V. 1. Berkely: University California Press. 1978.
V. Pareto, another prominent analyst of economic behavior, used a different paradigm to study this phenomenon. Referring economic action to the category of rational (logical), he "deduced" a whole class of (non-logical) models and forms of social behavior based on social standards, habits, stereotypes and traditions. This enriched scientific ideas about the specifics of social behavior, including economic behavior, whose structure included not only rational (logical) but also irrational (affective, non-logical) elements. An analysis of the phenomena and factors of "non-logical" behavior, denoted by the terms "precipitation" and "derivation", revealed to sociologists the significant role of irrational and emotional components of social (economic) behavior, various predispositions, attitudes, prejudices, stereotypes, consciously or unconsciously masked and implemented in "ideologies", "theories" and beliefs*.
G. Simmel made an important contribution to clarifying the social essence and nature of economic behavior representative of the period of developing industrial capitalism. He gave a fundamental analysis of the social institution of money as a rationally calculated basis for most human actions, which coordinates them and leads to a "common denominator". The monetary type of rationalization of social life identified by G. Simmel allowed him to reveal the contradictory nature of the universal criteria and forms of socio-economic exchange that regulate, rationalize and rationalize the behavior of many people, being an important measure of their value relations**.
N. Kondratiev, within the framework of his probabilistic-statistical concept of the social sciences, managed to extrapolate the behavioral approach to a wide area of economic phenomena, creatively enriching the concepts of social action by M. Weber and P. Sorokin. The most significant aspect of his concept is the allocation in the structure of economic processes of that social substratum, which is the field of study of sociologists. These are individual, group and mass acts of people's behavior and their interaction, which give rise to such a relatively independent area as the economy***.
The behavioral analysis of the economic processes of modern society received a productive continuation in the structural-functional approach of T. Parsons and his student N. Smelzer. They gave an institutional and sociocultural interpretation of economic action as a subsystem of social action*. The merit of T. Parsons can also be considered that he defended and substantiated in polemics with institutionalists the necessity and autonomy of a sociological analysis of the economic life of society and developed an original system of institutional, sociocultural and functional determination of rational economic action, creatively synthesizing the ideas of M. Weber, V. Pareto , A. Marshal and J. Schumpeter.
The sociological analysis of economic behavior, begun by the classics of sociology, was continued in a number of concepts of foreign and domestic specialists "of the middle and end of the 20th century, although in the process of analysis, which is quite natural, certain competing trends emerged. This situation is observed both in the United States and in Western Europe.
Analyzing different points of view on the subject area of economic sociology, we can state that the basic subject of sociological analysis is the category of "economic behavior", which, having received a different interpretation from different researchers, most of them takes a leading place.
Considering this category, we set the task of its sociological interpretation, i.e., preserving the principles of economic analysis, to fill this category (as far as possible) with content that is close to real human behavior with all the contradictions, problems and “irrational residues” that are characteristic of it. .
It can be stated that economic behavior is the "social substance" of all processes, which together constitute what is called the economic life of society. This is due to the fact that the basis of the turnover of a huge mass of economic values (goods, services, information), their exchange is formed by numerous and diverse in nature and content, cyclically renewed individual, group and mass acts of human behavior in order to satisfy their needs or directly, or mostly indirectly**.
* Hoffman A. Sociology V. Pareto (Is Homo sapiens reasonable?) / McTopnq of theoretical sociology. T. 2. - M., 1998, p. 39.** Simmel G. The Philosophy of Money.- Boston. 1978.
*** Kondratiev N.D. The main problems of economic statics and dynamics. - M., 1991, p. 117.
* Parsons T., Smelser N. Economy and Society. A Study in Integration of Economic and Social Theory. - L: Rontledge and P. Kegan. 1984.** Kondratiev N.D. Decree. op., p. 109-110.
In this way, economic behavior - it is a system of social actions, which, firstly, are associated with the use of economic values (resources) of different functions and purposes, and, secondly, are focused on obtaining benefits (benefits, rewards, profits) from their circulation.
Let us supplement this definition with the definition of N. Kondratiev, which already in its formulations contains multi-valued, non-linear interpretations of social behavior implemented in various sectors of the economy. They contain a probabilistic version of economic actions, both in essence and in form: “Persons acting on the market ... in their concrete form, undoubtedly always show the greatest variety that can be observed among the people of a developed society ... but , noting the diversity of individual business entities ... we should not forget the other side of the issue. All these people are formed in certain and basically similar socio-economic conditions ... and since there is basically a similarity and closeness in the objective socio-economic conditions of their life, there cannot but be uniformity both in the people themselves and in their behavior ”* . Based on these "assumptions, N. Kondratiev gives a general interpretation and description of social actions in the system of economic life of society and those entities (economic entities) that implement them. All economic entities:
Distinguish between valuable and non-valuable things;
Whatever views they hold, and whatever
they did not strive for goals, as a rule, they defend personal ho
economic interests or defend as their own interests
sy who represent;
More or less subjectively evaluate those goods with which
they have to face, but their subjective assessments
are always associated with an objectively existing valuation of these
goods in society and expressed in prices;
Able to calculate to a greater or lesser extent
torment the calculation and therefore see where the probable
benefit, and where are the losses;
Want according to individual conditions and way
ability to act in order to obtain greater benefits and advantages
loss prevention;
In fact, they are capable of making mistakes in their calculations, and then
importantly, in their actions**.
* Kondratiev N.D. Basic problems of economic statics and dynamics, p. 355-356. ** Ibid.
The first thing that catches your eye when analyzing and interpreting this broad definition is the statement of multidimensionality, ambiguity, multivariance of the prerequisites and outcomes of human actions and actions.
In this stochastic reality (where the intentions and preferences of many to act rationally do not always coincide with the competence to bring these intentions to the desired result), there is a certain set of principles and methods that, repeated many times, often by trial and error, constrict a suboptimal choice field, defining some standard path to follow, which assumes:
value orientation maximizing intentions
and action, without which the principle itself turns into three
vial formula "maximizing anything";
personal economic interest, in which is concentrated
but the meaning, subject, direction and result are expressed
maximizing action; /
interdependence of personal assessments those economic benefits
to which the maximization actions are directed, and their
price "analogues" that synchronize subjectively
incommensurable scales of values of many people;
certain degree of qualification associated with the calculation,^
likely benefits and costs;
sustainable aspiration of economic entities act
within an acceptable balance of benefits and costs;
inevitable inaccuracy, relativity of the calculated
economic activities related to obtaining benefits,
and the resulting probability of errors and incorrect
actions.
Economic behavior as a social phenomenon is the subject of study of both economics and sociology.
Sociology, going beyond strictly defined categories of economic theory, focuses its attention on factors, conditions, social institutions, situations, as well as on various social subjects operating in their context that realize their specific, including economic, interests. In other words, the sociologist focuses on models of social behavior in connection with the application and explanation of the principle of maximizing results and minimizing costs, as well as those sociocultural institutions and their accompanying social stimulants or constraints that make it possible or significantly limit the rational use of various economic resources (personal, technological, organizational, financial, information, etc.). between people, in the traditions and norms of everyday life, as well as in
functional program of economic resources (for example,
rules and regulations for handling money, buying and selling, investment
lending, lending, property, circulation of securities
magician, rent, etc.).<* &"*
--;?v
The combination of these norms and rules in some cases may
be enshrined to the fullest extent possible in special laws
nodative acts, and in other cases - in the usual, natural
law, traditions, customs, social habits or stereotypes
groin. However, regardless of this, it determines the initial order
and allowable limits of social behavior for absolute
the majority of actors who want to achieve real
possible and legally permissible benefits. -«.-h -■>
The universal core of the motivation of subjects of economic behavior is the formula “Maximum reward with minimum cost”. Obviously, any rationally thinking subject of economic behavior is focused on benefits (* rewards) in the process of spending their own resources and minimal costs, otherwise the initiation of various economic actions would be unlikely. However, it is known that it is completely impossible to realize this formula. Nevertheless, the vast majority of subjects of economic behavior are based in their actions on its implementation, however, often with an unpredictable and unclear outcome. This is due to the fact that any of the subjects operates in a certain system of restrictions (limits), which make significant adjustments to_/their plans and intentions - both at the beginning and in the process of achieving the set goals.
Specialization of subjects of economic behavior, functions
nating even in one phase of the reproductive cycle, varying
comes in a vast range of forms and possibilities, since the pair
measures of economic behavior make a significant difference
depends on various factors, and above all on the nature
2. Typology of economic behavior
Along with the main types of economic behavior, the following models and varieties can be distinguished: monetary, economic, redistributive, purchasing, marketing, commercial, marketing, intermediary, market-gaming, entrepreneurial, speculative, non-normative, etc. Here are brief characteristics of the most important types of economic behavior and some their modifications.
Production behavior is associated primarily with the accumulation, concentration of material, technological, intellectual, organizational and other resources, their combination to obtain benefits with fixed consumer properties and profit (income) from circulation in the market. This very simplified interpretation, of course, does not reveal the whole complex of factors that characterize the behavior of subjects acting as commodity producers. The most significant is that production behavior is primarily "behavior based on the search for and maintenance of such input-output combinations that maximize the difference between income and costs."
Thus, in a market economy, the decisions, motivations and actions of producers are aimed at finding optimal combinations of cost and non-value labor factors. This allows you to increase profits in a given specific period of time, if the value and the supply-demand ratio for manufactured products are determined.
A fairly rigorous reconstruction of rational models of production behavior, presented in microeconomics, is "a direct translation into a clear mathematical language of the problems of choosing the optimal solution" . However, it does not explain many factors that determine the real behavior of economic entities in a stochastic and multidimensional socio-cultural space. Their actions are not always and not necessarily based on a rational choice of optimal solutions. There are limitations of an objective and subjective order: social stereotypes and traditions, extreme situations, personal and sociocultural factors, etc., which deform rational schemes and models of economic behavior, turning them into an unattainable ideal. Obviously, the sociological analysis of production behavior is much broader than rational schemes and reconstructions of microeconomics, which (in verbal form or using mathematical tools) offer different models of maximization.
exchange behavior ensures the movement of economic goods, services, information through market channels on the basis of accounting and comparison of their value. The measure of the relative rarity of circulating goods is fixed in prices and established in the process of mutual adjustment in the market (F. Hayek). It controls the actions of subjects acting in relation to each other as sellers and buyers.
It should be noted that the turnover of economic values is not only and not so much a physical process that unfolds in time and space, but rather the movement of dispersed, heterogeneous information that "crystallizes" in prices and helps to make decisions. Benefits (goods) oriented to specific needs are produced and circulated mainly in the case when it is beneficial to both the seller and the buyer. The intensity of the movement of economic values in a certain sense is directly proportional to the mutual benefit from their turnover.
It is possible to identify the most typical models and their modifications, which characterize the functional specificity and multidimensionality of behavioral programs implemented in the exchange of economic values.
Commercial behavior associated with the movement and supply of various goods based on the search for information about their relative value and the use of this information to obtain a certain benefit from their turnover. An extended version of classic commercial behavior is marketing. The function of the latter is to create conditions and situations that affect the positive motivation of consumers and buyers, the formation of a favorable infrastructure and market conditions.
As part of exchange behavior there are many relatively independent models of purchasing and marketing behavior, models of supply and demand for economic resources (for example, labor), etc. We can consider models of supply and demand for personal resources, models of behavior of consumers and producers (including search, coordination, discrimination, queues, etc.), direct contract models based on the mutual benefit of different agents of the market process, etc.
monetary behavior provides for the exchange of benefits between subjects on the basis of the use of liquid funds through a comparative assessment of the rarity of these benefits and the redistribution of benefits. Monetary behavior is a kind of "lubrication" of market processes, which helps to minimize transaction and other costs associated with the functioning of the exchange. Sociological analysis makes it possible to rationalize the motivational and sociocultural matrix of monetary behavior at the individual, group and mass levels. Based on the study of the functions of symbolic vehicles of social exchange and interaction, one of which is money, it helps to understand the mechanisms of value communication between people.
Intermediary Behavior- a special kind of communicative actions related to the exchange of price and other information between at least three agents of the market process (for example, a seller, a buyer and a third party that binds their economic interests, pursuing their own benefit). The effective implementation of certain economic tasks is based on the search, receipt, storage and transmission of confidential information. The latter is unevenly distributed and is a very rare good. Naturally, we are talking about market information, which is valuable only at a certain time and in a certain place.
distribution(distributive) behavior ensures the connection of market entities with economic resources, determines the rate and measure of appropriation of useful properties and benefits from their circulation. The market in this sense can be viewed as an endless process of redistribution of a huge mass of economic resources through a network of exchange and circulation, where many subjects permanently acquire and lose the right to control certain goods.
The specificity, functional and motivational features of distributive models depend on the measure of access to resources and, accordingly, the degree of control over obtaining benefits from their turnover. There are three main modifications: economic (sovereign-distributive), functional-distributive and commission-distributive.
First model(economic) characterizes the social behavior of subjects that have an absolute or preferential right to benefit from the use of resources they own.
Second model(functional-distributive) is inherent in entities that use and benefit on a contractual or other basis from the useful properties of economic resources owned by others. A typical example of economic behavior of this kind is demonstrated by persons employed by the employer.
Third model(commission and distribution) is implemented by entities that, on behalf of the owners, provide administrative, legal and other control over
actions of persons having direct or indirect access to the subject of someone else's property.
The listed models do not reveal the whole variety of social behavior of economic entities in the distribution cycle system. In reality, under developed market conditions, there are a lot of social invariants that reflect "changeable and very complex" bundles of powers ", the most effective combinations of which for all spheres have not yet been found" .
consumer behavior is aimed at extracting economic benefits from commodity circulation and appropriating their useful properties in order to satisfy numerous needs. The phase of consumption is typical for the majority of subjects using certain resources for their own needs. This is the most complex functional correlation of many factors that determine the dynamics and structure of the inclusion and exclusion of economic resources from commodity circulation in accordance with the ability (or inability) of economic entities to find the optimal balance with the market environment. They implement a range of functions and behavioral programs that enable them to perform these activities with varying degrees of success. This process is correlated with income levels, consumption standards and a measure of competence (ability) to calculate their costs and benefits.
In the consumer cycle system, several interconnected levels are distinguished, each of which has relative independence and specific functional specifics. For example, purchasing behavior associated with the search and acquisition of specific goods (goods) or their substitutes that allow you to satisfy instant, short-term, medium-term and long-term needs; behavior aimed at finding appropriate incomes that provide the required standard and quality of life.
It is also possible to analyze relatively autonomous models of consumer behavior associated with control over the rational use of consumer goods included in the permanent or variable property fund of an economic unit (family). Of interest are "balance" models of behavior that contribute to maintaining and maintaining the balance of economic entities with the external economic environment. It should be noted that some models of distributive and consumer behavior complement each other.
A brief description of the main models of economic behavior can be expanded.
The most important aspect is the allocation in the structure of economic processes implemented along the entire "perimeter" of the reproduction cycle, the social substratum, which is the area of research for sociologists. This theoretical procedure was consistently implemented by N.D. Kondratiev, The conceptual approach applied by him made it possible to establish and single out the non-economic components of the actual economic processes. First of all, these are individual, group and mass acts of people's behavior and their interaction, which give rise to such a relatively independent area of social life as the economy. Obviously, not all social actions implemented at different structural levels of the organization of society are substratum in relation to economic processes and institutions.
According to Kondratiev, these are only (or mainly) those actions and behavioral acts that realize economic interest or are indirectly transformed into one. Economic processes and institutions are based on social actions of a specific nature. These are acts of behavior (a chain of acts) implemented in the process of satisfying human needs or aimed at creating conditions and means to satisfy them. The structure and content of social behavior of this type are extremely diverse. It can proceed according to different schemes of motivation, including utilitarian, hedonistic, emotional, traditional, normative-imperative, etc.
Many economists of different schools and trends have explanatory and descriptive schemes of economic behavior models. However, for the most part they are fragmentary, discrete and are used to build and illustrate individual hypotheses and concepts. A vivid example is the motives of the monetary behavior of John. M. Keynes, which underlie his theory of demand for money.
In our opinion, N.D. Kondratiev is one of the few who paid special attention not to individual components of economic behavior, but developed a holistic sociological concept. It has not lost its relevance and can serve as a reliable means of rational reconstruction of various models that are implemented in all phases of the reproduction cycle. For example, it can be used to carry out a sociological inversion of micro- and macroeconomic models of economic theory, described in a verbalized or mathematical form.
An important aspect of the sociological analysis of economic processes is the study of the mutual determination of the substrate behavioral layer, various components and structures of the economic life of society. The measure and intensity of these social interactions, their vector and tension can be assessed by studying the axiological matrix of economic behavior. The latter gives an idea of its socio-cultural components, uniting the subjects of social actions and economic elements into a single complex, and in various combinations and combinations.
Thus, the study of economic culture as the most important determinant of social behavior is the central problem of economic sociology.
Economic culture is a stable system of normative standards, patterns of behavior, cultural standards, traditions, social habits and skills that reproduce the dominant ways and methods of control over economic resources. The so-called socio-cultural matrix of economic behavior, formed in certain specific historical conditions, is preserved in the stereotypes of mass consciousness. The latter acquire a relatively autonomous existence and begin to have a reverse effect on the functioning of economic institutions. This problem is currently attracting close attention of sociologists.
The subject area of economic sociology should include studies of the subject side of social actions unfolding in the structure of economic processes. The analysis of the subjects of economic behavior, their motivations, preferences, abilities and interests is very relevant. Of particular importance is the sociological interpretation of such concepts and categories as firm, manufacturer, partnership, partnership, joint-stock company, household, etc. These concepts reflect the functional and stratification characteristics of real subjects (individuals, groups, organizations, families, etc.) that are included in the economic life of society.
In conclusion, let us name another important problem of sociological analysis - the study and measurement of the economic stratification of society, which is associated with the functioning of the institution of property and its modifications. Models of social behavior that reflect the degree of exclusivity of access to goods, types of legal regimes and different combinations of elements of property rights determine the effectiveness of the inclusion of subjects in the economic structure of society, the limits of social reproduction, the degree and vector of freedom of their social behavior.
V.V. Radaev three main approaches that defined the advanced frontiers of economic sociology in the late 90s - the sociology of rational choice, the network approach, the new institutionalism. French economic sociology was singled out as a separate direction. In our country, in Soviet times, sociological research in the field of economics was quite popular, although it was carried out within the framework of the Marxist sociology of labor. According to V.V. Radaev, economic sociology in Russia is "doomed to success", and the most promising direction is the culture-oriented new institutionalism.
The institutional sociological approach, according to R.V. Chernyaeva (Mine), is effective in the analysis of social costs in the economy. The category "costs" is usually regarded as purely economic. But from the standpoint of the new institutionalism, the modern economic system is dominated by costs, the economic mechanism for minimizing which is based on trust and social interaction. As for the methodology for calculating social costs, today it is obvious that there is a need to develop new indicators to characterize people's satisfaction not only with material, but also with non-material conditions of existence.
E.V. Kapustkina (St. Petersburg) examines the elements of the conscious and unconscious in economic behavior. The term "unconscious" is used to characterize individual and group behavior, the true goals and consequences of which are not recognized. Moreover, the unawareness of economic behavior does not necessarily mean its irrationality. Thus, actions brought to automatism are, of course, rational, since they contribute to the achievement of the goal with minimal energy costs. The report revealed elements of the unconscious at all stages of the economic cycle (production, distribution, exchange and consumption). The proportion of unconscious actions at each of these stages is different. R.V. Karapetyan (St. Petersburg) devoted his report to the analysis of the social evolution of labor consciousness. In parallel with the development of human consciousness, his awareness of his activity also developed. At a certain stage in the development of tools, conditions are formed under which, in the minds of people, their dependence on the forces of nature is replaced by social dependence. The image of labor as a dependent activity is being formed. Over time, freedom of choice decreases (through the division of labor, professionalization), and social dependence steadily increases. The social environment forms in the mind an understanding of the need to work, since a person outside of work is a person outside of society.
Yu.A. Sventsitskaya (St. Petersburg), based on the study of texts of conspiracies concerning monetary relations, showed the presence of magical practices as elements of primitive consciousness in modern economic life. She was supported by G.P. Zibrova (St. Petersburg), from the point of view of which the phenomenon of man has not yet been studied, the influence of one person on another can be very significant, which allows us to use the practical experience of the spiritual life of our ancestors even today. According to V.V. Skitovich (St. Petersburg), stable forms of behavior, incl. economic, are reflected in folklore, in particular, in proverbs. The section also presented new areas of research within the framework of economic sociology - the sociology of financial behavior (O.E. Kuzina, Moscow), the sociology of property (E.E. Tarando, St. Petersburg). The Department of Economic Sociology of St. Petersburg State University also conducts research within the framework of the sociology of distribution, the sociology of exchange, and the sociology of consumption. The sociological analysis of trademarks on the basis of post-structuralism also belongs to the sphere of the latter. Differences between a product and a brand were analyzed in the presentation by A. Dixel (Hamburg, Germany). N.I. Boenko (St. Petersburg) proposed to supplement the currently prevailing civilizational approach to the analysis of the evolution of the economic sphere with a new, synergistic-organizational approach.
It is well known that the sociology of labor was one of the most, if not the most developed branch of Soviet sociology. Within its framework, a vast experience of empirical research has been accumulated, the object of which was labor consciousness and labor behavior, which can be considered as one of the forms of economic consciousness and economic behavior. Therefore, the organizers of the Congress seemed quite justified to have the opportunity to consider the declared topic from both positions - economic sociology and the sociology of labor. Some of it succeeded, some of it didn't. According to some representatives of the sociology of labor, economic sociology is a science out of touch with life, so there are no points of contact between the two areas, and there cannot be. This division seems to us far-fetched. Thus, for example, the object of study of the sociology of labor in the last decade has become not only the direct productive labor of workers and managerial labor at industrial enterprises, but also entrepreneurial activity. Meanwhile, the analysis of entrepreneurship traditionally belongs to the field of sociology of entrepreneurship, one of the components of economic sociology. Another problem that caused a lively discussion at the section was the question of the method of economic sociology. There are clearly two main approaches. The first, interdisciplinary, is adhered to by Yu.V. Veselov. In his opinion, there is a need to create a new social mega-science that would unite the possibilities of all the humanities. Only in this way is progress possible in the analysis of all spheres of social life, including economic ones. As proof of this thesis, he referred to the speech of H. Schrader (Magdeburg, Germany), who, at the intersection of economic sociology and economic anthropology, conducted a study of St. Petersburg pawnshops as one of the strategies for the survival of the city's population. This approach was generally supported by E.L. Pinteleyeva (Tver). She believes that it is necessary to develop a new method for the analysis of economic actions, combining at least the methods of economic sociology and economic psychology.
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