National economy. Ed.
TOPIC 1. THE WORLD ECONOMY AND THE MAIN REGULARITIES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT
Topic outline
1. Causes and prerequisites for the emergence of the world economy and the formation of the world economy.
2. Patterns of development of the world economy.
3. Indicators characterizing the state and development of the world economy.
4. The main subjects of the world economy.
5. Prospects for the world economy and Russia's participation in it.
1.1. REASONS AND PREREQUISITES FOR THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD ECONOMY AND FORMATION OF THE WORLD ECONOMY
The needs of human society tend to grow steadily both in terms of nomenclature and volume. As you know, they are provided as a result of a combination of natural resources and other factors of production and are subject not only to natural, but also to social regulation. And yet, a person is not limited to providing only material needs, but also feels the need to satisfy his spiritual needs and various services to no lesser extent. Satisfaction of the urgent and comprehensive needs of human society as a whole and of each member is provided not only by products and items of final (personal) consumption, but also by means of industrial consumption.
The nomenclature (standard sizes) of the results of the application of human labor consumed by the population of our planet by the beginning of the new millennium exceeded 20 million. And this indicates that not a single country in the world is practically able to produce their entire range and in required quantities. This impossibility is due not only to the lack or insufficiency of the required resources, but also to economic inexpediency. In addition, the problems faced by the human community in the implementation of planetary programs (environmental, space, etc.) in modern conditions become unfeasible due to the inability of even the most powerful and industrialized country to carry out colossal costs and use a wide variety of resources.
Thus, it can be stated that ensuring the vital activity of the population of both a separate state (even the largest, especially a small one) and the entire planet in modern conditions urgently requires the international pooling of resources, means and efforts of all countries of the world.
This process, at present, is intensively unfolding, as evidenced by the expansion of the range of objects of international exchange and movement: the results of scientific and technological progress, information, production and financial resources, labor, services. According to experts' forecasts, in the first decade of the 21st century, every fifth or sixth product purchased in a particular country will be manufactured outside of it.
This means that the world is becoming one, and the complete economic isolation of any of the countries of the planet is no longer possible. “Modern world economy”, on the one hand, is part of the universe and therefore functions according to the laws and principles common to the whole world, but on the other hand, it represents an independent single system with its own laws and rules, the elements of which are not in antagonism, but in interconnection not only with each other other, but also with elements of other systems (political, legal, biological, ecological, etc.).
At the same time, this does not at all exclude serious contradictions that are formed in the course of the formation of an integral world economic system, and therefore the world economy can also be considered as a set of national economies that are in constant dynamics, with growing connections and interconnections and, accordingly, the most complex relationship.
The world economy, as a relatively integral system, was formed only late XIX century, when: the era of geographical discoveries ended, all territories of the globe were assigned to some kind of national-state formation, which began to be recognized by the world community.
However, the integrity of the system does not mean its harmony. The latter can only be hypothetical or, most likely, ideally. Objective reasons hindering the harmonization of the world economy have arisen up to the present day, exist today, and will continue in the future (such, unfortunately, is the nature of man).
At the end of the past century, fundamental political changes took place in the Eastern Hemisphere, which led to a revision of the strategy and tactics of the entry of sovereign states into the world community. The ideological factor lost its significance, economic interests began to dominate. However, the political component of the universe does not leave the agenda and, perhaps, is unlikely to come down in the foreseeable future.
The West, and especially the US, are trying to establish their hegemony and are trying to implement the concept of a new world order that appeared after the collapse of the socialist system. In the almost “unipolar world” that has developed over the past fifteen years, the United States has begun to exert a powerful influence not only in the political arena, but also in the economic one. However, this goes against the logic of the equal participation of all states in the formation of the world economy and violates the interests of most countries on the planet, especially large and developed ones. The latter adhere to the concept of a “multipolar world” and are taking successful steps to form one (combining the efforts of the European, Asia-Pacific and Arab regions, Latin America, Africa).
Russia stands for a “multipolar world”. However, unfortunately, there are influential forces, veiled, sometimes even openly, setting the task of subordinating Russia and other CIS countries to the West. At the same time, to satisfaction, there are other forces that realistically assess the current international situation and advocate a new political, economic and social integration. various countries on a global, planetary scale, preserving its national identity and understanding its interests. .
1.2. REGULARITIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD ECONOMY
The world economy is formed on the basis of extremely complex, dialectically contradictory relations and processes, the interaction of various countries. The motivation for the entry of national economies into the world economic community is based on two principles: mutual interest in the development of the world economy and the objective need for intercountry economic relations. The process, of course, cannot proceed spontaneously, but must be regulated by adequate economic laws. The following fundamental economic laws are a universal tool for building the structure of the world economy: cost (basic for the “alignment” of national economies), time savings and, directly related to it, the law of deepening the division of labor, as well as the law of supply and demand. .
The main trends in the formation of the world economy as a universal economic integrity can be recognized as the internationalization of world productive forces and the globalization of the world economy. The process of internationalization of production began to be facilitated by changes in the nature economic relations between countries with a market and administrative-planned economy due to the latter's rejection of the principles of isolationism and inferior participation in international economic relations. “Modern world development determines trends towards cooperation and mutual understanding, a general movement towards a single, interconnected, interdependent and in each part more developed and socially just world. Today we are witnessing the emergence of a global trend of the gradual formation of a single humanistic, non-violent socio-economic formation with strongly pronounced socially oriented principles, developed democratic institutions, in which various countries closely cooperate with each other in the field of economy, culture, the political structure of the world, in human communication ". .
In the formation of the world economy, the processes of division of labor play a significant role, which are both prerequisites and factors for its development.
The division of labor, specialization and cooperation developed and took shape within the national economies of individual countries. However, over time, the division of labor went beyond this framework and became international, which predetermined a new quality of interaction between national economies and their economic entities. It was this process that became the basis for the internationalization of management.
The main trend of the modern world economy is its globalization, which is understood as an increase in the volume and diversity of world economic relations, accompanied by an increase in the economic interdependence of the countries of the world. It, being a logical continuation of internationalization, is a decisive factor in current international economic relations.
Globalization covers all spheres of human activity: scientific research, production, construction, services, culture, finance, etc. An indirect measure of the scale of globalization can be the volume of international trade, international financial transactions, which in the New York currency markets alone amount to 1.3 trillion daily. . dollars, and on the international securities market - even more.
The globalization of the world economy is conditioned and accompanied by the rapid development of information technology, information systems and services. The Internet is rapidly becoming not only a tool for information, but also for global trade exchange (the latter will become significant with the introduction of the second generation Internet - broadband high-speed communication).
Globalization brings with it a more complete and rational use of resources (including human resources), an acceleration of their concentration (especially capital), and an expansion of the scale of production complexes of world significance that go beyond the boundaries of individual states. The benefit of an individual country from globalization largely depends on the strategy chosen by it. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that, first of all, industrialized countries benefit from the globalization of the world economy, and within individual countries, more developed regions. This fact testifies to the further growth of the gap between rich and poor countries.
The globalization of the world economy brings with it not only positive, but also Negative consequences, however, as experts admit, there is no alternative to it.
A reasonable question arises: will the world community benefit from the globalization of the economy, or will it eventually lose out? The answer to this question depends decisively on the nature of the world system. If the world is engulfed in conflicts, then globalization will have absolutely negative consequences. If the world strives for mutually beneficial cooperation, then globalization will only lead to positive results. The task is to create a world system with new international institutions that would allow us to extract the maximum positive effect from globalization and reduce its costs to a minimum.
To achieve the effectiveness of globalization, it is necessary to observe certain norms of international behavior, for which, first of all, it is necessary: to achieve openness and transparency of information, its regular and complete provision; eliminate illegal trade and patronage through hidden connections (“criminal capitalism”); eliminate all other forms of corruption in a legitimate way.
Different systems and subsystems of the world economy have always been in a dialectically complex interaction and interdependence. Nowadays, it has become unequivocal and generally recognized that no country on the planet can develop in isolation from the rest of the world, that is, outside of international economic relations. The deepening and deployment of the latter depends on two factors: natural and acquired. The former include natural, geographical, demographic factors, the latter - industrial, scientific and technological, informational, etc. But, since the process occurs in a real dimension, the course of its development is significantly influenced by political, national, ethnic, social and moral and legal factors.
To date, the following main areas and areas of world economic activity have developed: international trade; international specialization of production and scientific and technical work; scientific and technical cooperation; information, monetary and financial and credit relations between countries; international movement of capital and labor; activities of international economic organizations, economic cooperation in solving global problems. .
In the second half of the 1980s, with the formation of sovereign states in the post-socialist space, the nature of world economic relations between countries changed, which required a new approach to their classification. Such an attempt was made by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations, which divided the countries of the world into three main groups: countries with developed market economies, countries with developing or transitional market economies, and developing countries.
The first group includes countries that are traditionally called industrialized. To the second - the most developed part of the current developing countries (or, as they are called "new industrial countries") and states with economies in transition (former socialist countries). The third group includes countries with an undeveloped market economy or, as they are now called "least developed countries".
1.3. INDICATORS CHARACTERIZING THE STATE AND DYNAMICS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD ECONOMY
The state and dynamics of the development of the world economy is analyzed on the basis of a number of indicators, the main of which is the gross world product (GMP). GMP is the total volume of goods and services produced on the territory of all countries of the world, regardless of the nationality of the enterprises operating there in a certain period of time. When calculating GMP, as well as GDP, the repeated counting of raw materials, semi-finished products, other materials, fuel, electricity and services used in the production of final products is excluded.
This indicator is calculated based on the GDP of the countries of the world. The source of these data is the System of National Accounts (SNA). SNA is a record of all types of economic activities of the state and its economic entities, based on internationally recognized rules. The SNA can be compared to accounting in an enterprise or firm, but only at the national level. SNA reporting data is sent to international economic organizations, where they are compiled into a single world statistics. Thus, the value of the GMP for a certain period, its sectoral and country structure are obtained, the growth rates and growth of the world economy are studied.
The calculation of the GMP is carried out in a single currency - US dollars at current and unchanged rates. Measurement of GMP at current rates cannot claim to be an accurate quantitative measurement in individual countries and regions. Significant short-term deviations in exchange rates from average and long-term ones, large fluctuations in the relative costs of goods and services reduce the usefulness of calculating GMP in a single currency, as well as analyzing its dynamics, distribution by industry and countries of the world. Therefore, for greater accuracy in the measurement of the VMP, various correction factors are used that allow the calculation to be carried out at constant rates. However, this method can also underestimate in dollar terms the volume of goods and services produced in countries with a low level of development due to the large scale of the non-commodity sector in them (barter transactions, household production, the informal sector, which are usually not taken into account and can amount to 40% of GDP in the least developed countries). In this regard, another method of calculating the GMP is used, which is based on the use of the purchasing power coefficients of currencies.
The purchasing power coefficient of currencies is determined by the ratio of the prices of a set (basket) of identical goods in each country. According to the UN methodology, the prices of 600-800 basic consumer goods and services, 200-300 basic investment goods and 10-20 typical construction projects are compared to determine purchasing power parity. Then they determine how much this set costs in national currency and in US dollars.
The use of various methods for calculating the VMP leads to significant discrepancies in its values up to 20-40%. For example, in 1995 industrialized countries accounted for 55% of GMP calculated at purchasing power parity and 75% at current exchange rates, while developing countries accounted for 43% and 19%, respectively. According to this method of counting, the position of individual countries in the world hierarchy changes. The United States remains in first place - 21% of the GMP (25.3% at the current exchange rate), then: China - 12% (4.4%), Japan - 8.4% (15.7%), Germany - 5, 0% (5.6%), India - 4.1% (1.5%), followed by France, Italy, Britain, Canada, Brazil, etc. There is also a noticeable difference in the growth rate of GMP.
Differences in GMP estimates show that there is no single indicator that could take into account various types of economic activity in different countries identically. The suitability of each scoring method depends on the purpose of the analysis. The use of current exchange rates in estimating the GMP provides useful data in determining the sectoral structure of the world economy. GMP, calculated on the basis of current exchange rates, is needed to analyze the movement of capital between countries, levels of external debt and payments.
In addition to the GMP, the main indicators of the state and dynamics of the world economy are world trade turnover, the global volume of foreign investment and their structure, the global volume of labor migration of the population, the total amount of debt and others, which will be discussed in the relevant chapters of the training manual.
The whole set of indicators characterizing the development of the world economy can be combined into two blocks of indicators. The indicators of the first block make it possible to assess the level of globalization of the entire world economy, while the second - the level of participation of an individual country (or group of countries) in global economic processes. The quantitative assessment of the studied phenomena is carried out through the use of absolute, relative, specific and synthetic indicators.
The level or degree of globalization processes taking place in the world economy can be assessed using the following system of indicators:
The volume of internationalized (international) production of goods and services and the rate of its growth in comparison with the volume and rate of growth of the entire gross product on the planet;
The volume and dynamics of foreign direct investment in comparison with the volumes and dynamics of all (both international and domestic) investments;
Volume and dynamics of the international concentration of capital;
The volume of the whole international trade goods and services and the rate of its growth in comparison with the gross domestic product, i.e., the real sector;
Data on international transactions with patents, licenses, know-how;
The volume and dynamics of international operations of banks and other credit institutions in comparison with the total volume and dynamics of all their operations;
The volume and dynamics of international stock markets (differentiated by segments - bonds, stocks, etc.) in comparison with the total size of these markets and their growth rates;
Volume and dynamics of foreign exchange markets in comparison with the general scale of money markets.
To assess, analyze and forecast the place and role of each country (if necessary, communities and regions), it is necessary to have a range of macroeconomic indicators. Economic theory and international practice have developed indicators that are widely used by modern statistics.
The most applicable in terms of absolute macroeconomic indicators are:
Gross domestic product (GDP);
Output of products and services of basic industries (industry, agriculture, construction, transport, retail trade);
The volume of industrial production;
Agricultural products;
Investments in fixed assets;
Real disposable cash income;
Total population and unemployed, etc.
To characterize the state and scale of production and economic activity of each individual country and communities, indicators are used to assess their share in the world economy by one or another parameter. For example, the share or share of the GDP of a given country in the GDP of the entire world economy.
The most illustrative and convenient for comparison picture is characterized by indicators reduced to a specific (single) expression. Their use makes it possible to avoid mental comparisons of the sizes and scales of the phenomena under study and directly correlate their characterized values. The most used specific indicators in international statistics include: the volume of GDP per capita, the volume of foreign trade turnover, foreign investment per capita, the purchasing power of a unit of national currency, etc.
All of the listed indicators, despite their universality, allow one to have an idea of the state of a particular phenomenon only on a fixed date, that is, they characterize it in a static state. To assess the degree of development of the economy, characteristics are also required that allow it to be assessed over time. That is, in dynamics. For these purposes, statistics operate with indices and rates of change of the studied phenomena. For example, world price indices for gold and oil, exchange rate indices, production growth rates, exports, etc.
In international statistics, the most commonly used indicators are gross national product (GNP) and gross domestic product (GDP). GNP is a generalizing indicator of economic activity and is intended to characterize the interrelated aspects of the economic process of production of material goods and the provision of services, the distribution of income for their final use.
Modification of GNP is an indicator of domestic (domestic) product (GDP). Unlike GNP, which characterizes the results of economic activity of economic entities of a given country, regardless of where they are geographically located, GDP reflects these results in the territory of a given country.
GDP is calculated at current basic and market prices (memorial GDP) and comparable prices (real GDP).
Table 1 provides a number of indicators characterizing the share of largest countries world, the total production exceeds 78% of world GDP.
The data in the table show that the United States is still the world's largest economic and financial power. By 2000, the country's GDP reached 93330 billion dollars, which is almost a quarter of world GDP. They account for approximately 14% of world trade, which is several times higher than the corresponding figures for any other state. The global financial crisis led to significant shifts in the global economy and, perhaps, will further strengthen the position of the United States in the world market.
Table 1.
Russia, however, in the list of the largest countries in the world, both in terms of its absolute and specific macroeconomic indicators, occupies a more than modest and, perhaps, unworthy place. This state of affairs can be explained by the ongoing since the early 90s. unreasonable economic policy, which provided an “enviable” regularity in the decline in the rates of both industrial production and GDP.
The given data should alert the Russian society, since Russian Federation inferior in terms of key indicators not only to the G7 countries, India and China, but also to South Korea, Mexico, Brazil and Indonesia. According to experts, in the next decade, if there are no fundamental economic changes, Russia may be overtaken by Turkey, Iran, Argentina and Australia.
A generalizing indicator that characterizes not only the level of development of the economy of a given country, but also the quality of life of the people who settled it, is the value of the produced GDP per capita.
The table provides data for individual regions of the planet as of 2000.
Table 2.
One of the characteristics of the formation of the world economy and, as a consequence, the development of the world market is the degree and intensity of interpenetration of the markets of individual states produced by commodity masses. * In this regard, information on the commodity structure of world exports over the past 40 years and forecast estimates for 2000 and 2015 World Trade Organization for the next 20 years. Table 3 shows this structure (in % of total exports, at current prices).
Table 3
In the range of indicators that directly or indirectly characterize the possibilities and results of the entry of national economies into the world economy, country ratings are accepted for use in international statistics: by the size of foreign trade; according to the terms of trade index (the ratio of the export price index to the import price index); by the degree of diversification of export markets (the ratio of the share of the value of exports to the three main countries to the total amount of exports).
A synthetic indicator that characterizes a country's position in the world market is the competitiveness indicator developed by the World Economic Forum.
To determine the rating in the world ranking tables, multifactorial models are used, which take into account 381 indicators. They are grouped into 8 aggregated factors: economic potential, foreign economic relations, government regulation, credit and financial system, infrastructure, management system, scientific and technical potential and labor resources.
The analysis is carried out for 43 countries of the world.
In the top ten of the table of ranks (according to 1998) were: USA, Finland, Norway, Switzerland, Denmark, Luxembourg, Canada, Ireland, Great Britain, New Zealand. Russia was on the last line.
The need to assess and analyze the diverse and multi-level processes taking place in the world economy requires bringing the statistical information of various countries into a comparable form on the basis of common methodological principles. Such systems are developed by international and intergovernmental organizations in the form of standard and unified classifications of international economic activity and nomenclatures of goods and products involved in international exchange.
Currently, the following classification systems have been developed and are used in world practice:
International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC);
UN Standard International Trade Classification (SITC);
Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS);
Basic Products Classifier (CPC).
1.4. MAIN SUBJECTS OF THE WORLD ECONOMY
The world economy is a system that is constantly changing. The nature and direction of these changes are formed largely under the influence of changes in the quantitative and qualitative composition of its subjects, that is, participants in international economic life. These are states; international organizations, including economic ones (MEOR); integration economic groupings of states; large private companies, including corporate TNCs, MNCs, TNBs, FIGs and others; medium and small enterprises; individuals.
The object in the world economy and international economic relations are directly goods, services, capital, labor in the world markets, as well as other factors of production, world economic relations and their forms.
The activities of all DOE subjects are the main driving force of the global economic development and forms the objective patterns of development of the economy of any country, region and the Ministry of Energy as a whole. The countries of the world are the main subjects of the ME, since the development of the economy of each of them affects the dynamics of the development of neighboring countries and ultimately determines the direction and quality of development of the entire world economy. In terms of the level of economic development, the speed of development, the degree of integration into the Ministry of Energy, the socio-economic structure, the nature of economic development, and other parameters, they differ significantly from each other. These differences form the basis of the classifications used by various international institutions and organizations. The International Bank for Development and Reconstruction (IBRD) categorizes countries by per capita income; The UN World Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) groups the countries of the world depending on the degree and pace of industrial development of the economy (according to the share of value added in industry in GDP); International Monetary Fund (IMF) - depending on the socio-economic structure of the state and forms of relations with the fund (industrial (24 countries) and developing countries), etc.; The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) distinguishes groups: developed and developing countries and countries with economies in transition [1, p. 319-323].
The “developed” group includes countries with the highest material standard of living, although they may include large areas characterized by extreme poverty. In the sphere of production of this group of countries, a significant share is occupied by the service sector of a knowledge-intensive nature of a complex nature. They are centers of scientific research and do not resort to foreign financial assistance, have a high level of labor productivity. Within the group, there are the largest industrialized countries (G7 countries), which have the largest GDP in the world (Germany, Italy, Canada, Great Britain, USA, France, Japan) and other developed countries. In the special economic literature they are called industrially developed countries (IDS), developed countries with market economies (MSEM), industrial countries.
Countries with economies in transition (CPEs) include states whose economies are in transition from a command-administrative system to a market one (transitive economy). The reforms carried out in them in the mid-1980s led to severe economic shocks, a significant reduction in production and a deterioration in socio-economic conditions. According to the level of development of the national economy and its structure can be grouped into several groups. But ECOSOC groups them by region: - the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE - Bulgaria, Hungary, Albania, Poland, Romania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and the states of the former Yugoslavia); former republics that were part of the USSR and formed the Community of Independent States (CIS - 12 states); Baltic countries (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia).
The rest of the world's countries are classified as developing countries and are divided according to several classification criteria:
by geographic location different developing countries Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific (Western Asia, China, East and South Asia, including the Pacific Islands);
by level of economic development allocate: exporting countries fuel where domestic production of primary commercial fuels (oil, natural gas, coal and lignite) exceeds domestic consumption by 20%; the share of fuel in total exports is at least 20% (Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Bolivia, Venezuela, Vietnam, Gabon, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Kuwait and others). They are not part of the least developed countries; fuel importing countries – developing countries not included in the groups of fuel exporting countries and least developed countries; industrial goods exporting countries (Hong Kong, Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, India, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, etc.). This group of countries is commonly referred to as Newly industrialized countries (NIEs). According to the UN criteria, this group includes countries whose national income (NI) per capita is at least $1,000 per year; the share of industry in GDP is at least one third; and the share of finished products in exports is more than half. They are characterized by the flexibility of the economy (the ability to carry out its reconstruction in no more than 5 years).
Least Developed Countries(LDCs) are 48 countries with GDP per capita, economic diversification index and "extended index of real quality of life" below the limit.
ECOSOC also classifies developing countries according to the level of financial stability, distinguishing among them: countries of net debtors (countries of Africa south of the Sahara) and countries of net creditors (Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Singapore and others).
National economies and the world economic system periodically experience crises, periods of recession and stagnation. Contradictions and conflicts arise between its separate subjects and spheres. In resolving, smoothing, preventing contradictions and regulating relations between subjects, the ME perform the MEOR.
An international economic organization is a system of formations of various types, created on a contractual basis by state or economic bodies of interested countries to solve economic and political and economic issues or joint production and economic activities in certain areas of the economy, science and technology, industries .. Thus, The MEOR is a tool for combining efforts and a means of accumulating material, financial, informational and human resources in order to solve socio-economic problems, including global ones.
By nature of activity distinguish MEOR coordinating, operational and consulting.
coordinating MEOR are organizations that have their own powers and financial resources, on the basis of which they coordinate international, regional, national financial and socio-economic development.
Operational MEOR exist in the form of various forums where the point of view (requirement) of the governments of the countries of the world is expressed and approaches and recommendations are developed for conducting economic policy in individual countries and regions.
Advisory MEOR are engaged research work, based on the collection and analysis of statistical information, provide reports and forecasts for the development of countries, regions and the entire world economy as a whole.
According to the form of organization, MEOR can be non-governmental and intergovernmental; by the period of activity - temporary and permanent; in terms of the scope of activities - regional and global, in terms of the nature of the problems under consideration - global, universal, specialized.
The main organs of the UN are the UN General Assembly; UN Security Council, UN Economic and Social Council, UN Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and UN Secretariat.
The activities of the UN have a social and economic orientation to a greater extent, and are implemented through the activities of specialized bodies and international economic organizations, the most important of which is ECOSOC. ECOSOC conducts research and prepares reports and recommendations on a wide range of international economic, social, cultural and other issues. This organization in the UN system accounts for 70% of the UN budget. ECOSOC has a complex branched structure and solves its main issues with the help of specialized organizations such as UNCTAD, UNIDO, the World Bank Group, the IMF, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and others.
Under the national economy is considered to be the national economy of the country. This is a set of all industries and regions connected into a single organism by multilateral economic ties. In the national economy, the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, services and spiritual values act as an inseparable complex. She is the product historical development of this society and has its own face: private, mixed, state, etc.
The national economy as an integral organism is characterized by the following features:
1. A common economic space with a single legislation, a single monetary unit, a common monetary and financial system.
2. The presence of close economic ties between economic entities with a common reproductive circuit.
3. Territorial certainty with a common economic center that performs a regulatory and coordinating role.
In the national economy, each subject, whether it be an economy, a firm, a region or a state, joining the economic space pursues its own interest. The coordination of interests is directed by objective economic laws: each individual, having his own interest, simultaneously contributes to the achievement of the greatest good for all.
The national economy strives for stability, efficiency, justice through the provision of:
1. Stable growth of national production volume;
2. High and stable level of employment;
3. Stable price level;
4. Maintaining an equilibrium external balance.
These goals are achieved through the use of certain tools of macroeconomic regulation.
They are:
- fiscal policy (operating with the state budget through the tax system and state spending);
- monetary policy (money supply control through the interest rate, reserve ratio and other instruments);
- the policy of income regulation (from the free establishment of wages and prices to decree control);
- foreign economic policy (trade policy, exchange rate regulation).
The overall and final results of the functioning of the national economy are the increment national wealth, volumes of goods and services that are profitable and necessary for society, the most efficient use of limited human and material resources. In a lecture on social production and its results, these indicators were given (GRP, ND, GNP) and a description was given to each of them.
The general pattern of a market economy is the cyclical nature of its development: from rise to decline, followed by stagnation in production and business life (depression), which is replaced by recovery and recovery. Crises began to recur periodically starting in 1825.
The cyclical nature of the market economy is due to objective factors. The material basis of cyclicity is the physical renewal of fixed capital, although the direct impetus for the crisis can be a variety of reasons, and above all, monetary shocks.
If the frequency of ordinary crises is 7-12 years, short cycles - 3-4 years, then long waves are measured by 40-60 years. The latter are associated with the structural renewal of the technological method of production.
Crises are accompanied by unemployment, disorder of the monetary system, bankruptcies, deterioration in the life of the population.
Along with the theory of cyclicality and in opposition to it, there is a theory of economic equilibrium. It was developed in the works of representatives of classical science (A. Smith, D. Ricardo) and has many adherents among modern economists. According to this theory, the market mechanism itself ensures the restoration of economic equilibrium and its maintenance, the mutual balance of supply and demand, accumulation and consumption, as well as between the production of means of production and the production of consumer goods. The mechanism of free competition is considered to be the main mechanism of self-adjustment of economic relations.
2. Essence and functions of finance
The modern world is a world of comprehensive and omnipotent commodity-money relations. They permeate the internal life of any state and its activities in the international arena.
In the process of reproduction at different levels, starting with the enterprise and ending with the national economy as a whole, funds of funds are formed and used. At the same time, it does not matter in what form the money appears: in the form of cash paper notes, or in the form of credit cards, or the amounts in bank accounts are generally out of any form.
The system of formation and use of funds of monetary resources involved in ensuring the process of reproduction constitutes the finances of society. And the totality of economic relations that arise between the state, enterprises and organizations, industries, territories and individual citizens in connection with the movement of funds forms financial relations. They are complex, diverse and resemble the circulatory system of a living organism, through which the movement of goods and services is carried out, a kind of exchange of substances between the economic cells of a social organism. On the periphery of this organism, financial relations cease. Here money is already acting in its natural functions as a means of circulation or payment. But before reaching this final link, they are formed and serve the entire set of economic ties and economic relations.
The financial system includes three main links: public finance, household finance and enterprise finance. Of these three links, the finances of enterprises are the main one, because the first two links are formed on their basis.
Public finances consist of two main elements: the state budget and off-budget funds. The state budget is the annual plan of state revenues and expenditures, it is money that allows the state to perform economic and social functions (and, more recently, political ones). The state budget consists of the government budget and local budgets (regions, cities, districts, village councils). Therefore, the approval of state budgets for the next year is always stormy. Governments are trying to infringe on the rights of the regions, and the latter are trying to leave more funds at their disposal.
Extra-budgetary funds are those funds that are accumulated outside the state budget system and have a strictly designated purpose: a pension fund, a social insurance fund, etc.
The budget consists of two parts: revenue and expenditure. In countries with developed market economies, 80-90% of the budget revenue is formed from taxes on enterprises and the population.
The rest comes from the use of state property, foreign economic activity. The structure of the expenditure part of the budget includes expenditures for social and cultural needs (health care, education, social benefits etc.), spending on the development of the national economy, defense, public administration.
In a socially oriented economy, taxation is based on the principles of obligation to pay, social justice and links with the receipt of benefits. More about this was discussed in the lecture "On the economic role and functions of the modern state." In Ukraine, the tax system is still in its infancy.
The ratio of revenue and expenditure of the budget may be balanced, but may be unequal. Most often, states are faced with a situation in which costs exceed revenues. The practice of budget deficit is widely developed in the world. But there is always a certain limit, beyond which undesirable phenomena in the economy begin. The country begins to live in debt to its population, other states, squanders its national wealth and worsens living conditions for future generations. According to the IMF, the budget deficit should not exceed 2% of GNP. Ukraine's budget deficit is 6-7% and is covered by NBU loans (23%), internal loans - 33%, external loans - 44%. Naturally, these figures are not stable, but so far the annual deviations from them are insignificant.
3. Fiscal policy of the state and its impact on the volume of national production
Fiscal (tax) policy of the state refers to the constant intervention of the state in economic processes and phenomena in order to regulate their course. This is a set of measures in the field of taxation aimed at forming the revenue part of the state budget, improving the efficiency of the functioning of the entire national economy, ensuring economic growth, employment and stability of money circulation. The state is strong with its finances. The United States ended 1997 with a zero budget deficit, high employment, and, consequently, high payment demand, which in turn ensures the economic growth of the national economy. And at the heart of this dynamism lies the effective financial policy of the state, which is always mobile and aimed at resolving major economic programs: stimulating the economic activity of entrepreneurs, small businesses, combating unemployment, inflation, etc.
In developed countries, approximately 1/5 of the gross national product or 40-50 percent of the annual national income is distributed through the budgets. Such funds allow for the restructuring of production, mastering Newest technologies and develop large-scale science and technology programs.
The process of formation of fiscal policy in Ukraine is going on in a complex and contradictory environment. At the first stages of perestroika, the state lost control over economic activity, pricing, and did not create the legal basis for the tax system. With the increase in taxation rates, the inflow of investment into the sphere of material production stopped, capital was concentrated in the trade and intermediary sphere, which became criminal. The collection of taxes is 50-55 percent of the amounts planned for the budget. The effect of the Law of Demand was manifested: the higher the tax rates, the less money goes to the cashier. The tax office has become so numerous that it begins to work for itself. Since 1997, a system of the State Register of Individuals has been created and a complete declaration of citizens' incomes has begun. However, two points must be taken into account: the psychology of the population, who are not accustomed to a clear record of their income and expenses, as well as old women and engineers selling seeds in places of mass passage and crowds of people. They went out into crowded places, driven by want, and to place a tax inspector with a state mug near them would be blasphemy.
The following principles are supposed to be introduced into the basis of Ukraine's fiscal policy:
- the basis of the entire taxation system should be direct taxes on land, property, capital, income of individuals and legal entities and profits of legal entities;
- indirect taxes should be applied in the form of excises in order to protect their own producers, limit the consumption of certain types of goods, as well as on luxury goods and on the income of a monopoly producer;
- the use of differentiated tax rates depending on the amount of income received;
- elimination of unreasonable privileges in taxation.
4. Impact of consumption and investment on the volume of national production
Fiscal policy was theoretically substantiated in the works of the outstanding English scientist J. Keynes and his followers. This theory entered economic thought as a theory of state regulation of the economy, the main elements of which are consumption, savings, investment, that is, a model of aggregate demand.
Aggregate demand includes consumer demand and investment demand (investment costs). Consumption is measured by the amount of goods bought and consumed over a period of time. The total amount of resources spent on consumption is influenced by objective and subjective (psychological) factors. Consumption moves in the same direction as income. Higher income - more purchases. Psychologically, a person is inclined not only to increase consumption as income rises, but also to save. In the distribution of income, two lines cross: the marginal propensity to consume and the marginal propensity to save. With an increase in total income, part of it will go to increase consumption, and the other part to increase savings. Saving income and profits economists consider as the basis of investment. The level of investment has a significant impact on production volumes and national income.
Savings and investments can be carried out by different economic entities. The investor and the one who saves coincide when the source of investment is the savings of enterprises. In the second half of the 20th century, the population itself became the main investor, and their savings are the source of their investment. That is why banks and other credit and financial institutions are so actively hunting for the saved part of the population's income.
But savings and investments depend on different factors. The amount of investment depends on the rate of return. Let's put a question in front of us. If capital investment in the electronics industry promises 15% return, and the purchase of Government securities gives 35% per annum (as it happened in Russia and Ukraine), then where will the flow of funds of firms go? Naturally for the purchase of securities. And the state at the expense of these funds will pay wages to state employees and patch up its other gaps. Growth national production in this case it won't.
Savings is an increasing function of interest, and according to Keynes it is a function of income: the higher the level of interest in banking and savings institutions on the deposits of the population, the higher will be the activity of the population in saving part of their income.
The growth of investment leads to an increase in production and national income, causes the involvement of additional workers in production, increases employment, and with it income and consumption. The essence of the theory (effect) of the multiplier lies in the fact that an increase in investment leads to an increase in the national income of society, moreover, by an amount greater than the initial increase in investment, that is, investments cause a chain reaction in the form of income and employment growth. The multiplier is defined as the ratio of the increase in income to the increase in employment.
At the macro level, the efficiency of capital investments is determined by the ratio of the increase in national income to the increase in capital investments. When determining the effect of investment, it is important to take into account the impact on the environment and public health.
The market economy does not automatically regulate investment activity and savings. In a complex developed economy, this is a function of the state, while its intervention must be calculated both in the short term and in the long term, that is, scientifically justified.
Review questions:
1. What do you understand by the national economy?2. What are the main features of the national economy.
3. How can stability and efficiency be achieved in the development of the national economy?
4. Describe the general and final results of the functioning of the national economy.
5. What do you understand by the cyclical development of a market economy and describe the phases of the cycle.
6. What determines the duration of the short-term and long-term cycle?
7. Define finance.
8. List the components of the financial system and give them a description.
9. Define the state budget and reveal the structure of its revenue and expenditure.
10. How do you understand the budget deficit. Name the sources of its coverage in Ukraine.
11. What do you understand by the fiscal policy of the state?
12. On what principles is the fiscal policy of Ukraine based?
13. Expand the relationship between consumption, savings and investment.
14. Expand the content of the theory of the multiplier effect.
| Previous |
1. Macrolevel of the economy: problems and goals. Main macroeconomic indicators. The role of the penal system in the functioning of the national economy.
2. Indicators of the volume of national production and methods of their calculation.
3. System of national accounts: functions and structure.
1. Macroeconomics is a branch of economics that studies the patterns of functioning of the national economy, and the economy is considered as a hierarchical system. Macroeconomics studies problems common to the entire economy and operates with aggregate values such as gross domestic product, national income, aggregate demand, etc.
The main problems that are studied in macroeconomics are: economic growth, economic cycle, employment and unemployment, inflation, money turnover, the state of the state budget, the state of the balance of payments and the exchange rate. These problems cannot be solved at the level of an individual consumer, an individual firm and an individual industry.
The most important principle of macroeconomic analysis is aggregation. Aggregation is the combination of individual elements into a single whole, into an aggregate. Aggregation makes it possible to single out macroeconomic agents (households, firms, the state, the foreign sector), macroeconomic markets (the market for goods and services, financial market, market of economic resources, foreign exchange market), macroeconomic relationships and macroeconomic indicators.
Macroeconomic relationships allow you to explore the patterns of behavior of macroeconomic agents in macroeconomic markets, which is done using the model of product circulation, costs and income. Based on this, the subject of macroeconomics can be defined as follows: macroeconomics studies the patterns of behavior of macroeconomic agents in macroeconomic markets.
All macroeconomic processes are studied on the basis of building models. The model allows you to identify the main patterns of development of economic processes and develop options for solving complex macroeconomic problems, such as inflation, unemployment, etc.
Models include two types of variables: exogenous and endogenous. The values of exogenous variables are formed outside the model, they are independent values in the model, and their change is called autonomous change. Endogenous variables are variables whose value is formed within the model, i.e. these are dependent variables.
Macroeconomic variables are also divided into two groups: indicators of flows and indicators of stocks. The flow characterizes the quantity for a certain period of time. Flow indicators include: total output, total income, consumption, investment, deficit (surplus) of the state budget, exports, etc., since they are calculated for the year. All indicators in the circuit model are flows. A stock is an indicator that characterizes the quantity at a certain moment. Stock indicators include: national wealth, personal wealth, capital stock, the number of unemployed, production potential, public debt, etc.
2. GDP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in the territory of a given country, whether with the help of domestic or foreign factors of production in one year. Only official market transactions are included in the value of GDP. Therefore, GDP does not include self-employment (renovation of an apartment, etc.), free labor, the cost of goods and services produced by the shadow economy. All products produced by the economy are divided into final and intermediate. Final products are products that go to the final consumption of any economic agent and are not intended for further processing or resale. Intermediate products are sent to a further production process or resale.
Inclusion in GDP of the value of only final products avoids double counting. For the same reason, all resales are also not included in GDP. Since it is impossible to determine by appearance whether this product is a final or intermediate product, the value of the final product is calculated by value added. The method is based on the fact that the total value of the final product is equal to the total value added. The value added by each producer is equal to the difference between the sales proceeds and the cost of raw materials and materials (intermediate products) purchased by him from other producers. All internal costs of the firm, i.e. for the payment of wages, depreciation, rent of capital, rent of premises, etc. (not to be confused with internal costs), as well as the profit of the company are included in the value added.
All payments that are not made in exchange for goods and services are not included in the value of GDP. These include transfer payments and financial transactions. Transfer payments are divided into private and public. Private transfers are payments and gifts made to each other by individuals (for example, parents to children). Government transfers are government payments to households through the social security system and firms in the form of subsidies. Financial transactions include the sale and purchase of securities.
GNP (gross national product) is the total market value of all final goods and services produced by the citizens of a country with the help of their (national) factors of production, whether in the territory of this country or in other countries.
Three methods can be used to calculate GDP:
By expenditure (end-use method);
By income (distributive method);
By value added (production method).
GDP calculated by expenditures is the sum of expenditures of all macroeconomic agents, including the following groups of expenditures. Consumer spending is household spending on goods and services. Investment spending is the cost to firms of buying investment goods. Investment costs include investments in fixed assets (for the purchase of equipment and for industrial construction), investments in housing construction and investments in inventories (stocks of raw materials and materials necessary to ensure the continuity of the production process, work in progress, changes in inventories of goods produced, but still unsold products during the year). When calculating GDP by expenditure, investments include depreciation.
Public procurement of goods and services includes, firstly, the cost of maintaining state institutions and organizations that ensure the regulation of the economy, security and law and order, political administration, social and industrial infrastructure, and, secondly, payment for the services of public sector workers; investment spending by state enterprises.
Net exports are the difference between export earnings and a country's import costs.
When calculating GDP by income, GDP is considered as the sum of incomes of owners of economic resources (households).
National factor incomes are:
Wages of workers and salaries of private employees, including all forms of remuneration for work;
Rent payments, including payments received by property owners;
Interest payments, or interest, including all payments that private firms make to households for the use of capital;
Profit is income from the "entrepreneurial ability" factor. In accordance with the differences in the organizational and legal forms of firms, the profit of the non-corporate sector of the economy and the profit of the corporate sector of the economy based on joint-stock ownership are singled out. Corporate profits are divided into three parts: corporate income tax, shareholder dividends, and corporate retained earnings.
In addition to factor income, GDP calculated by income takes into account two elements (included in the cost of any product and therefore in the value of GDP), which are not the income of the owners of economic resources. Firstly, these are indirect taxes on business, which are paid by the buyer of a product or service, and paid to the state by the company that produced them. Secondly, it is depreciation (cost of consumed fixed capital).
Under the method of measuring GDP by value added, gross domestic product is determined by summing the value added of all sectors and types of production in the economy.
Net domestic product (NDP) and net national product (NNP) reflect the productive potential of the economy, since they only include net investment (without depreciation), which must be subtracted from GDP and GNP to obtain NDP and NNP, respectively.
National income - ND - is the total income earned by the owners of economic resources. It can be obtained by subtracting indirect taxes from NNP or by summing all factor incomes.
Personal income (PI) is the total income received by the owners of economic resources. To calculate the LI, subtract everything that does not go to households (social insurance contributions, corporate income tax, retained earnings of corporations, interest paid by households) from the NI and add everything that increases household income, but is not included in the NI (transfers, interest paid by the state).
Disposable personal income (DPI) is the income used, i.e. owned by households. It is less than personal income by the amount of individual taxes that the owners of economic resources must pay in the form of direct taxes, primarily income taxes, as well as personal interest payments on loans, etc. Households spend their disposable income on personal consumption and personal savings.
3. The main macroeconomic indicators reflecting the results of economic activity for the year are expressed in the prices of a given year and therefore are nominal. Nominal indicators do not allow one to compare the levels of economic development in different countries in the same period of time, as well as comparisons of the levels of economic development of the same country in different periods of time. The value of nominal indicators is influenced by changes in the price level. Such comparisons can only be made using real indicators expressed in constant prices.
The value of nominal GDP is affected by two factors: changes in real output and changes in the price level. In order to measure real GDP, it is necessary to "clear" nominal GDP from the effect of changes in the price level. Real GDP is GDP measured in comparable (constant) prices, in base year prices.
Real GDP is equal to nominal GDP divided by the price index. Of the many types of price indices in macroeconomics, the most commonly used index consumer prices(CPI), producer price index (PPI) and GDP deflator. The consumer price index is calculated based on the value of the market consumer basket, which includes a set of goods and services consumed by a typical urban family during the year. The producer price index is calculated as the value of a basket of capital goods (intermediate products).
The GDP deflator is calculated based on the value of the market basket of all final goods and services produced in the economy during the year. The GDP deflator is equal to nominal GDP divided by real GDP multiplied by 100%.
Depending on whether the general price level has increased or decreased over the period under review, a deflation operation (reducing the price level of the current year to the price level of the base year) or an inflation operation (increasing the price level of the current year to the price level of the base year) is carried out.
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JSC " Medical University Astana
Subject: Indicators of the development of the national economy
Performed:
Askarova A.Zh.
Checked:
Shyntaeva S.S.
Astana 2015
Introduction
1. The concept of national economy
2. System of indicators of the national economy
3. Indicators of the national economy of Kazakhstan since 1991
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The national economy is a historically established system of social reproduction of the country, an interconnected system of industries and types of production, covering the forms of social labor existing in the national economy. The national economy consists of a number of large areas: material and non-material material production, non-manufacturing sphere.
The most important component of the national economy is material production, in which the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created. Material production includes industries such as industry, agriculture, construction, transport, trade, and communications.
The concept of "national economy" is closely related to the concept of "economic system", because specifies the economic system, reflects the specific features due to the geographical position of the country, its participation in the international division of labor, cultural, historical traditions and other factors.
The national economy is the object of study of various economic sciences. Thus, economic relations and patterns of development in its individual sectors are studied by such disciplines as the economics of industry, construction, agriculture, etc. Economic theory, on the other hand, considers the national economy as an integral system, reveals the content of its basic concepts, general patterns of development. The basis of the national economy is formed by enterprises, firms, organizations, households, united by economic relations into a single whole, performing certain functions in the social division of labor, producing goods or services.
World experience shows that with the formation of a market economy, a structural restructuring of the national economy takes place, its balance changes. Therefore, measures are developed and implemented for planning the national economy, based on their rationality, expediency in relation to the national economy as a whole or individual economic structures.
1. The concept of the national economy
The national economy is considered to be National economy countries. This is a set of all industries and regions connected into a single organism by multilateral economic ties. In the national economy, the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, services and spiritual values act as an inseparable complex. It is a product of the historical development of a given society and has its own face: private, mixed, state, etc.
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The national economy as an integral organism is characterized by the following features:
1. A common economic space with a single legislation, a single monetary unit, a common monetary and financial system.
2. The presence of close economic ties between economic entities with a common reproductive circuit.
3. Territorial certainty with a common economic center that performs a regulatory and coordinating role.
In the national economy, each subject, whether it be an economy, a firm, a region or a state, being included in the economic space, pursues its own interest. The coordination of interests is directed by objective economic laws: each individual, having his own interest, simultaneously contributes to the achievement of the greatest good for all.
The main goal of all economic policy is to create an efficient and competitive economy. At the same time, the mechanisms and methods for achieving this goal include a set of tools that make it possible to create a favorable environment for the economic activity of all economic entities, regardless of the form of ownership.
The national economy strives for stability, efficiency, justice through the provision of:
1. Stable growth of national production volume;
2. Stable price level;
3. Maintaining an equilibrium external balance;
4. High and stable employment rate.
1. Stable high growth rates of national output. This means a steady growth in the production of goods and services in a given country without abrupt changes, recessions and crises. The consequence of the economic growth of the country is the smoothing of social, political, national contradictions. A growing economy is characterized by an increase in the annual national output, which can be used not only to effectively meet needs, but also to develop social or scientific and technical programs. If social production is growing, then in conditions of limited resources, there is no need to solve the dilemma: either increase the level of consumption, or fight poverty and pollution. environment. Growing production allows for both. Thus, economic growth facilitates the solution of the problem of limited resources.
The factors of economic growth are:
* natural resources (their most complete extraction and complex processing is necessary);
* labor resources (raising the level of education, improving health, improving the organization of work);
* fixed capital (equipment of enterprises, vehicles, etc.);
*scientific and technical progress;
*total demand.
2. Price stability. It should be borne in mind that prices that remain unchanged for a long time slow down the growth rate of GNP and reduce employment. Low prices are good for the consumer, but deprive the producer of incentives, while high prices, on the contrary, stimulate production, but reduce the purchasing power of the population. Therefore, achieving price stability in a modern market economy does not mean "freezing" them for a long period, but a planned regulated change.
3. Maintaining the foreign trade balance. In practice, this means achieving a relative balance between exports and imports, as well as a stable exchange rate of the national currency against the currencies of other countries. If more goods are imported into the country than are sold abroad, then there is a negative trade balance. If more goods are exported than enter the country, then they speak of a positive balance. The state of the trade balance is significantly influenced by the exchange rate - the value of the monetary unit of one country, expressed in the monetary unit of another country. An increase or decrease in the exchange rate can change the balance achieved and cause a positive or negative balance.
4. High employment rate. It is achieved if everyone who wants to get a job finds it. But this does not mean that full employment covers the entire able-bodied population of the country. In any country at any given time there is a certain number of people who are temporarily unemployed due to a change of job or place of residence. In addition, there is always structural unemployment due to the discrepancy between the structure of new jobs associated with the introduction of new technologies, the existing structure of the labor force and the latter's lag in terms of qualifications and new professions from the demand for these professions.
These goals are achieved through the use of certain tools of macroeconomic regulation.
They are:
Fiscal policy (operating state budget through the tax system and government spending);
Monetary policy (money supply control through the interest rate, reserve ratio and other instruments);
Income regulation policy (from the free setting of wages and prices to decree control);
Foreign economic policy (trade policy, exchange rate regulation).
The overall and final results of the functioning of the national economy are the increase in national wealth, the volume of profitable and necessary goods and services for society, the most efficient use of limited human and material resources.
The general pattern of a market economy is the cyclical nature of its development: from rise to decline, followed by stagnation in production and business life (depression), which is replaced by recovery and recovery. The cyclical nature of the market economy is due to objective factors. The material basis of cyclicity is the physical renewal of fixed capital, although a variety of reasons can be the immediate impetus for the crisis, and, above all, monetary shocks.
2. System of indicators of the national economy
The purpose of the functioning of the entire national economic system, production and non-production, is the creation of goods and services with which the country fills and expands the material and spiritual foundations of society. Benefits find their material expression in the ongoing process of production of various types of products. The whole flow of the created product has many faces, the number of its types and subspecies is estimated in millions, each of which is measured by different units, which are not comparable with each other.
Therefore, indicators are needed that could combine all this diversity and express the total volume of production. Practice has identified a monetary unit as such a universal meter, and cost indicators as an estimate of volume.
Economic theory and economic practice use macroeconomic indicators to assess the level of development of social production.
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For the analysis of the national economy, the following indicators are distinguished:
Gross product, national income, exports, imports, foreign trade turnover, unemployment rate, inflation, budget deficit, level of public debt.
Gross product - this generalizing indicator has the following varieties: gross social product (GSP), gross national product (GNP) and gross domestic product (GDP).
GP as an estimated indicator is not currently used. The volume of production calculated by this indicator did not express the real content, since it allowed for repeated counting in its composition. The GP included in its composition both the final product and the intermediate product.
The final product is the goods and services that go beyond production and are bought for final use.
Intermediate product - goods and services that are further processed and resold several times before reaching the final consumer, i.e. product produced in a given year and consumed in the same year to create the final product.
Gross national product is defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced in the economy in a year. When calculating GNP, the value of only final products entering consumption is summed up. Intermediate products are not included in GNP. This method of calculation avoids repeated counting and artificial overestimation of GNP.
This is a general and most accurate indicator that covers the final results of the economic activity of all economic units - both in the manufacturing sector and in the service sector.
In world practice, there are two methods for calculating the gross national product. The first method of calculating GNP by expenditure.
GNP is a huge flow of all kinds of goods and services, which, according to its material content and purpose, is divided into consumer goods and the so-called investment goods - the means of production.
GNP under this method includes:
Consumer spending of the population (С);
Government procurement of goods and services (G);
Gross savings and investments, which are represented by depreciation and net (additional) investments (J)$
Gross domestic product. GDP is close in content to the GNP indicator. It takes into account the entire product produced in the territory of a given country, regardless of the nationality of the enterprises. GDP sums up the PV of all producers of goods and services, which are called residents. GDP includes the trade balance of the country, but does not take into account the product produced at the enterprises of this state outside its borders.
According to statistical data, the difference between GNP and GDP in terms of their volume is insignificant and fluctuates within 1%.
GDP is calculated by three methods: production, distribution, end use.
production method involves the calculation of GDP in the following ways:
1. As the value of the gross output of goods and services in the national economy at basic prices, excluding the value of the intermediate product, plus the sum of value added taxes and net taxes on imports:
GDP = gross output -- intermediate product + value added taxes + net import taxes.
2. As the sum of the value added of industries or sectors of the economy at market prices (including net taxes on goods and imports). Gross value added is the difference between gross output and intermediate product.
distribution method (by income) involves the summation of the primary incomes of producers of goods and services: salaries of employees, net taxes on production and imports, gross profits and gross mixed income from property and entrepreneurship. Gross profit is that part of the value added that remains with producers after deducting the costs associated with the payment of employees and net taxes on production and imports. Property income includes income received by business entities from the provision of financial and non-financial assets (interest, rent). Detailing the above, we denote the main components of GDP:
1. Salary - wages of workers and employees and additional payments for social security and social insurance (W). national economy kazakhstan development
2. Rent, or rent - income received by the owners of land, premises, housing for the use of leased cash objects (R).
3. Interest - payment for the money capital provided on credit. It is also paid on the deposits of the population in the bank (r).
4. Gross profit - it is received by entrepreneurs of individual farms, partnerships, corporations (Rval). Gross profit can be calculated as the sum of the economy's net income (P) and depreciation (A). Depreciation -- part of the income of firms, going to the restoration of used equipment.
5. Taxes on profits of firms and indirect taxes that serve as a source of government revenue, including imports (T).
Thus,
Y= W + R + P + A + r + T.
end use method. Domestic end products are spent on consumption in the domestic market, on savings, and are exported. Since the domestic market also consumes imported goods for accumulation in addition to domestic goods, the sum of all consumption and accumulation expenditure minus the value of imports plus the value of exports is GDP by final use (or expenditure). So, the summation of final consumption or expenditure (G) of households (or consumers) and the state (government spending, G), gross savings (BC), export and import balances (NX) is the third method of measuring GDP. It should be borne in mind that gross saving is an increase in working capital and capital investments (Ival):
Y=C + Ival+G + NX.
Nominal GDP includes the sum of all goods and services produced in a year measured at current market prices. It should be borne in mind that often GDP growth turns out to be fictitious due to rising prices. Therefore, if GDP is estimated at comparable prices, that is, price increases due to inflation are deducted when estimating it, this is real GDP.
Potential GDP refers to the possible national output obtained at full employment and stable level prices.
Finally, actual GDP-- is the national output created in conditions of cyclical unemployment.
National Income (ND) as an indicator of the state of the national economy is also widely used. It characterizes the level of economic development of the country, its economic structure, as well as the level of well-being of the population and economic development opportunities in the future with the greatest accuracy, in comparison with the gross product indicator.
The value of the ND indicator can be calculated as the sum of all primary incomes (before their direct taxation) received by resource owners (wages + profit on capital + rent):
ND = L + P + R
Along with these main indicators, the following indicators are also used in the practice of analyzing the state of the economy:
net national product(NNP), calculated as GNP minus depreciation;
Personal income(LD), calculated on the basis of NI, excluding social security contributions, income taxes, undistributed profits of corporations plus transfer payments;
Real income(RD), it is equal to LD minus personal income tax.
Inflation - the depreciation of money
Budget deficit - the excess of spending over income
Unemployment rate - the ratio between the unemployed and the able-bodied population
The trade balance is the difference between exports and imports. The larger the surplus, the better, because this is the main way foreign exchange enters the country;
3. Nationaleconomy of Kazakhstan since 1991
After the collapse of the USSR, the most difficult task was the formation of market relations. The transition to a new socio-economic formation was practically carried out. It was necessary not only to declare economic freedom, but also to create practical conditions for its implementation, the formation of a free entrepreneur, businessman, private owner. An important step in the transition to qualitatively new relations was the privatization and denationalization of state property. As a result of 4 stages of privatization (small, mass, individual) for 1991-2000. 34.5 thousand objects of state property were sold to new private owners through commercial, investment, open tenders for coupons, rubles and tenge for a total of 215.4 billion tenge. The very process of privatization, which caused a lot of fierce disputes and heated discussions, led to the emergence in the country of an unprecedented class of private owners and free entrepreneurs.
Thus, the number of the most massive sphere of entrepreneurship - small business (individual entrepreneurs, farmers, SME workers) - increased significantly from 19.0 thousand small enterprises in 1993 to 67.0 thousand in 2000 and 675.2 thousand. operating SMEs in 2011. In this area, employment increased from 132.4 thousand people. in 1997 to 2.5 million. Of these, as of September 1, 2011, 699.2 thousand people. worked in medium-sized enterprises, 661.7 thousand in small enterprises, 697.1 thousand in individual enterprises, 429.5 thousand in peasant (farm) enterprises.
And if in 1996 39.5% of all property in the country was in the hands of the state and 57.1% in non-state, then in 2010 the share of the state decreased to 10.8%, and 72% was in private ownership, 17% - foreign property. As early as 1997, 79% of the volume of industrial output was produced by private enterprises, while state enterprises accounted for 6.6%. In 2009, 77% of products were produced by private enterprises, 22.1% - by foreign enterprises, 0.9% - by state enterprises. As of September 1, 2011, out of 296.1 thousand legal entities, 253.6 thousand (85.6%) were private, 27.2 thousand state, 15.3 thousand foreign and 9.5 thousand joint. Private property in the country has become the dominant subject of economic relations.
The economic role of the state has changed significantly. Its tasks were the creation of normal conditions for entrepreneurship, the regulation of economic and financial relations between the state and business, concern for financial stability and ensuring social development countries. During the years of independence, the financial base of the state has been strengthened. To build the right relationship between business and the state, a fiscal system was formed, a legislative, regulatory and legal basis for economic relations was created. The main socio-economic principles were enshrined in the Constitution of the country. The Civil, Labor, Tax, Customs Codes have been adopted. The right to property was guaranteed, economic rights and freedoms were granted, especially the right to free enterprise. Over the years, conditions have been created for the realization of these rights and freedoms, legal protection has been provided, material basis and scaled up state support business, entrepreneurship. The tax rates have been repeatedly reduced.
In turn, the country's entrepreneurship has provided jobs for more than 6.2 million people, of which 2.7 million are self-employed. The income of the population has increased. The average monthly salary increased from 6,000 tenge in 1998 to 24,000 tenge in 2000 and to 93,000 tenge in 2011. As a result, the share of the population with incomes below the subsistence minimum decreased by more than 5 times.
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Share of the population with incomes below the subsistence level1), % |
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The attraction of large-scale foreign investments, both direct and portfolio, has become a significant lever for the rise of the leading sectors of the economy. These investments, in the conditions of an acute shortage of financial resources, especially in the initial period of independence, made it possible not only to restore the basic industries, but also to modernize production, ensure that products enter the world market, turn these areas into the main source of the country's national wealth, and solve key social and economic problems. development of the country.
It should be emphasized that competition in the global investment market is not weakening. Almost all countries, including the USA, the EU, China, India and other countries, are actively and persistently fighting to attract investments.
According to UNCTAD, in 2010 the inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the world reached 1,244 billion dollars. The USA, China, Hong Kong, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Great Britain became the largest recipients of FDI. In 2010, half of the top 20 countries in terms of FDI inflows were developing countries.
For 20 years, Kazakhstan has managed to develop and implement an effective investment policy. A strategic investment course was determined, a clear investment policy was pursued, a favorable climate was created, long-term investments were legally guaranteed, and the stability of the preservation and implementation of the concluded agreements was ensured. As a result, during the years of independence, record levels have been achieved, the volume of foreign investment in the country's economy has exceeded 131.9 billion dollars. More than 71% has been in the last 5 years. The volume of FDI in Kazakhstan in 2010 amounted to 17.3 billion.
One of the main integral indicators of the country's development is the growth of the gross domestic product (GDP).
Dynamics of the GDP of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 1992-2011
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Billion tenge |
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Billion Doll. |
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Billion tenge |
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Billion Doll. |
The volume of Kazakhstan's GDP over 20 years has grown by 53.6 times and, together with the results of 2011, will amount to 994.5 billion dollars. This figure is comparable to the annual level of GDP in Turkey and Iran.
Obviously, not all tasks have been solved in 20 years. Unemployment, income gap between the rich and the poor, and regional disparities persist. However, it is also obvious that during the years of independence, another country has been built, occupying a worthy place in the world, solving many problems and defining a new quality of life for its population. Time is an important factor. If Kazakhstan has achieved such results in just 20 years, then in the future, while maintaining and increasing the created potential, the country can undoubtedly reach higher peaks.
Conclusion
The transition of the national economy to the market is impossible without the restructuring of the country. Structural changes occur unevenly, at different rates. The purpose of the transformations is not only to establish an effective economic structure of the national economy, but also to stop the decline in production, solve social problems and, ultimately, form market relations. This is achieved through the liquidation of unprofitable industries, the creation of new highly efficient jobs, the reorientation of production to the production of export competitive products, as well as a huge investment of financial resources, incl. foreign investment.
WITHlist of used literature
1. Borisov E.F. Economic Theory: Course of lectures for students; higher educational institutions. M., 2003.
2. Danilov A.S., Yuldashev Z.Yu. National economy: Tutorial, T., 2003.
3. http://www.nomad.su/?a=4-201110100035
4. http://credonew.ru/content/view/1108/67/
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NATIONAL ECONOMY
Plan:
Subject and objectives of the course
Main macroeconomic indicators and system national accounting
Main macroeconomic proportions
Types of national economic systems
Subject and objectives of the course
The Republic of Belarus is a young independent state, which in July 1990 received sovereign status, which provided the Belarusian people with full sovereign rights to their territory within national borders and the national economy. If in the Soviet period the economy of the BSSR was only an organic part of a single national economic complex (ЕHXK) Soviet Union, then with the collapse of the USSR and ENHK, it began to transform into a national economy, gradually acquiring the features of a single economic entity within the framework of a sovereign Belarusian state, which became a full member of the world community, a subject international law and international economic relations.
Over the years of independent existence, Belarus has gone through a difficult path of building statehood, filling sovereignty with real content, transitioning to market relations in difficult conditions of overcoming the systemic socio-economic crisis caused by the collapse of the USSR.
The term "national economy" has actively entered into scientific circulation, management, economic practice of the last decade as a synonym for the concept of "economy of a sovereign country" along with the terms "national economy" (National economy - English, Volkewirtschaft - German, Gospodarka narodowa - Polish) , "Economy of the Republic". The word "national" focuses on the fact that the economy is considered in its entirety, on the scale of the nation, the state, and not only in the ethnic aspect.
It is necessary to distinguish between the national economy as a science (a scientific direction and an academic discipline) and as an area of economic practice.
Like science the national economy has its own object, subject, tools and subject of scientific research. Subject studies are the socio-economic processes of reproduction, patterns of functioning and development of the economic system, its structural and functional elements, potentials and mechanisms. As object is the national economic system of the country. It is studied by a number of economic disciplines: theoretical (political) economy, economic history, economic statistics, econometrics, mathematical modeling, economic and social geography, etc.
The generalized research results create the scientific foundations of the national economy, which include a set of key theoretical and methodological, conceptual, scientific and methodological, instrumental and applied provisions and, above all, the conceptual and categorical apparatus, methodological imperatives and methodological tools. The most effective scientific method in the study of economic complexes has proven itself systems approach . In accordance with its principles, the system is an ordered set of elements united by interactions and relationships into a single whole. A stable set of elements (components, subsystems) and their relationships forms the structure of the system, which determines the patterns of its functioning, properties and characteristics that manifest themselves in behavior when interacting with the external environment.
Concretization of ideas, principles of systems theory and system analysis (together with general scientific methods) in relation to various spheres of life of society and the state is provided structural-functional approach , the main provisions of which in the analysis of the systemic functions of the economy are as follows:
The economy is considered as one of the subsystems of the "society" system;
The systemic functions of the economy are derived from the structural and functional differentiation of society and the totality of social imperatives;
The functional imperatives of the subsystems of society, including the economy, are implemented through the appropriate institutional forms and processes with the help of specific mechanisms;
Processes in society, reflecting systemic functions, can be classified according to their functional orientation, structural and functional design, and reduced to a foreseeable number of types;
The economy, both at the level of general development processes and at the level of current functioning, can be considered as an institutional process, i.e. a process, the links of which are complexes of production-technological (including transport) and transactional "actions aimed at creating material goods, services, property benefits and incomes, as well as a sphere of mass behavior of economic agents.
Within the framework of this approach economic model - it is a system of integrated components, their most significant relationships and connections, reflecting the main content of the processes of balanced socio-economic and environmental development. The model of the economy can be represented as a system of institutions, their goals, functions, activities (both the state and the market act in it as a set of institutions).
The most appropriate definition is institute as a stable complex of formal and informal norms, principles, laws, rules governing various spheres of human activity, social relations and organizing them into a system of social roles and statuses through organizational and organizational and economic structures, including government bodies, institutions, organizations. The Institute also performs the function of social control.
The systemic model of the economy in this context can be interpreted in two aspects: positive and normative. In the first case, a model is a schematic description of a phenomenon or process in society. Analysis and diagnosis of economic phenomena and processes are carried out mainly with the help of descriptive (descriptive) models. In the second case, the model is a sample that serves as a reference for reproduction. Forecasts, optimization procedures, prospects contain, first of all, normative models.
A characteristic feature of complex social systems, which include the economy, is their ability to self-develop in the space of relations and institutions in accordance with general social and general economic laws. The potential (as an opportunity and ability) for the development of the economy is determined mainly by sources, resources, driving forces, nodes of contradictions (problems), directions and mechanisms for their resolution and adaptation to external influences and is essential aspect national economy.
Content aspect reveals in. analysis of the national economy as areas of business practice, analysis of the state, factors, problems, trends, parameters of the economic system, mechanisms of its development as the basis for the development of economic policy, including goals, directions and ways to achieve them, methods and means of preparing and implementing Macroeconomic decisions of the management and regulation of the country's economic system.
Governing bodies and scientific structures can act as subjects studies of the national economy. Thus, National economy - this is the economic system of the country that meets the principles (methodological imperatives) of sovereignty, integrity, sociality, national orientation. Her character traits and conditions:
Sovereignty of the nation and state;
Territorial integrity;
Unity of economic space and legal environment;
Common nature of economic institutions, including the institution of property;
Availability of a single means of payment - the national currency - and an integral financial system;
The development of the domestic market and the stability of foreign economic and geopolitical relations;
Effective guarantees for the independent management and increase of national wealth in the interests of improving the welfare of the nation.
The national economy as a complex system includes complex organizational, structural, functional, institutional and other subsystems, components, characteristics (Fig. 1.1).
In organizational terms- is a set of business entities: organizations, institutions, enterprises, industries, industries, regions, their relationships and relationships.
Structurally- these are economic complexes: industry, agro-industrial complex (AIC), military-industrial complex (MIC), fuel and energy complex (FEC), construction complex and a number of others.
Functionally- this is a set of potentials: natural resource, demographic and labor, scientific and innovative, industrial > environmental.
In institutional terms- this is a set of market institutions and segments of the national market: the breakthrough of production factors, the market for goods and services, the foreign exchange market, the stock market, the market for intellectual property, the housing market and others.
By levels of functioning and management the national economy is divided into macro level(the economy as a whole), mesolevel(industries, regions) and micro level(enterprises and organizations of the primary production even).
All structural components, complexes, potentials, segments of the national market are mediated by:
Forms and rights of ownership;
The movement of material flows various kinds resources involved in the economic, reproduction process and involved in the economic turnover in the form of raw materials, energy, capital, labor costs;
Financial flows ( money supply- cash and non-cash money), the movement of securities of all types (shares, bonds, bills, etc.);
The legal environment (legislative and regulatory legal acts of public authorities of all branches and levels, as well as a system of international treaties and agreements).
The socio-economic processes taking place in the national economy, together form a single process of reproduction, which covers four stages: production, exchange, distribution, consumption. Their functioning and end result are evaluated by a complex of the most important socio-economic indicators and macro-parameters, including accumulation and consumption, which characterize the movement of the social product. The dynamics of the reproduction process is usually described by three main parameters: the volume (scale) of production; rate of development (rate of growth or decline); the proportions of the system and the process of reproduction, characterizing the balance of its components, the uniformity (proportionality) of development. Violation of proportions, or disproportions, for example, in the reproductive, sectoral, technological, regional structures, leads to a drop in efficiency and the destruction of the economic system.
The most important characteristics of the national economy are efficiency and competitiveness, reflecting the state, trends, patterns of its development, place and role in the system of world economic relations, the world economy.
The above definitions and qualitative features, reflecting the essential characteristics, the general content of the concept of "national economy", allow scientifically sound research of real socio-economic processes, economic structures and institutions and logically correctly, conclusively state the main goals, methods, characteristics and patterns of functioning and development of the socio-economic system of Belarus, its specific historical farm - the Belarusian economic model.
Prerequisites for the formation, functioning and development of the national economy
The national economy of Belarus is in a complex process of transformation, which covers the following areas:
Formation of a complete set of components, institutions and characteristics of the economic system of a sovereign state;
Transformation of existing and construction of new institutions of a socially oriented market (mixed) economy;
Deep transformations of the structure of the economy based on new high technologies, global trends in the globalization of economic life, an effective international division of labor.
All these processes naturally occur in the mode of continuous functioning and development, since economic activity countries cannot be stopped.
For the successful implementation of these transformational processes, sufficient background and conditions, the creation of which will make it possible to give the economic system the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of a mature national economy (sovereignty, integrity, sociality, marketability, efficiency, national orientation, external openness):
System-wide - are constitutional, legal, philosophical, ideological, political in nature (new civilizational strategy, type of state and society being created);
Systemic - include the unity of the economic, institutional and legal space, the commonality of the nature of economic institutions, mechanisms and norms of interaction with the external environment;
Intrasystem - determine the efficiency and competitiveness of the national economy on the basis of compliance with the principles of rational management.
An analysis of international experience in the evolution of market economies shows that many countries of the world developed under the influence of the European idea of progress. Due to the influence of European culture (systemic pluralism, diversity of religious and cultural traditions, high degree individual entrepreneurship, the growing differentiation of social structures) in many countries of the world could simultaneously mature multiple prerequisites for the development of a market economy: economic, legal, political, ideological and cultural, socio-psychological, civilizational.
Due to centuries-old ties with European states, Belarus has adopted many features of European culture. However, its geographical position in the center of Europe, historical attraction to Slavic culture, long-term entry into a single national economic complex former USSR leave a long-term imprint on the geopolitical situation in the country, the development of foreign policy guidelines, preferences and principles for inclusion in interstate structures. Comprehensive consideration of these aspects, as well as geopolitical, geographical, socio-economic, environmental, demographic and other features inherent in Belarus, is the most important methodological prerequisite for choosing directions, models and mechanisms for the development of the national economy.
Foreign policy and foreign economic prerequisites are the primacy of sovereignty, the openness of the country's economy, the multi-vector nature of foreign policy, the stability of the strategic priorities of international cooperation and diplomatic relations, deep knowledge and forecast of the conjuncture of foreign markets. Having limited resources for self-sufficiency in raw materials, Belarus is forced to achieve the desired level of satisfaction of its needs in various goods and services through trade with many countries of the world. The current Belarusian economy practically cannot function without the import of oil and gas, metal and components from the CIS countries. That's why economic situation republic is largely dependent on export commodity flows to Russia, other CIS countries and far abroad, improving the quality and competitiveness of Belarusian products on foreign markets. These fundamental aspects should be reflected in the development of prospects and ways of developing the national economy.
Domestic political prerequisites are the improvement of the political system within the framework of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus on the way to the formation of democracy, the optimization of state management structures, the formation of public associations and the increase of civic activity.
The fundamental prerequisite for the construction, functioning and sustainable development of the national economy is the consolidation; in the strategic programs of socio-economic development of Belarus long-term guidelines and system-wide conditions of a proactive nature. There is such experience in the country. According to the National Strategy for Sustainable Socio-Economic Development (NSDS) of the Republic of Belarus until 2020, the following are defined as system-wide conditions of a strategic nature:
Construction and development of a unitary democratic social legal state (in accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus);
Formation of modern civil society;
Creation of a socially oriented market (mixed) economy.
The worldview and ideological basis of these prerequisites is a new civilizational strategy, which consists in changing the paradigm of social progress with the transition to new principles of interaction between nature, society and man, new concepts of social justice, economic efficiency and environmental protection.
The most important prerequisite is respect for the social, socio-psychological, cultural, and value orientations of the people. The historically established mentality of the nation, moral foundations, ideological positions based on the recognition of the principle of social justice, collectivism, friendship of peoples, is a powerful social potential for the development of the country in the legal and institutional spheres.
The effectiveness of the formation, functioning and development of the national economy is also ensured by a set of systemic conditions and principles. Among them is the creation of a unified institutional and legal environment for the country, its regions and sectors of the economy, which regulates property relations, organizational and legal forms of managing the economy, the functioning of the real sector, the financial system, and market institutions in the process of social reproduction. The system of such institutions, legal norms and mechanisms is determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, Civil, Banking, Tax, Customs and other codes, laws of the Republic of Belarus.
Systemic prerequisites also include full consideration of the specifics of the country in the sphere of the economy. Belarus has long-term development factors: highly qualified personnel, significant scientific, technical, industrial and agro-industrial potentials, large reserves of certain types of mineral resources. Along with this, the national economy also has stable negative aspects: an imperfect structure of reproduction; physically and morally obsolete fixed assets and technologies; slow pace of their renewal; discrepancy between the commodity structure of production and consumption, including a small share of the production of services in GDP; low quality and competitiveness of many types of products and services, etc. These phenomena should be objectively assessed when forming the potential for the development of the national economy.
Finally, the next group of prerequisites ensures the creation of intra-system conditions for transferring the economy to an innovative, high-tech, science-intensive type of development, optimization of the reproductive, sectoral, technological and regional structures of the national economy. Building a system of management and regulation of the economy based on the principles of rationality, strategic focus, tactical flexibility, structural harmony, taking into account the social, economic and environmental imperatives of sustainable development is a prerequisite for effective management.
These preconditions are twofold. On the one hand, they are preliminary, proactive conditions, on the other hand, they are permanent requirements for the transformation of the state, society, economy, ensuring political and social stability in the country.
All the groups of prerequisites, conditions, imperatives described above are comprehensively and consistently included in the programs and forecasts of the socio-economic development of Belarus, which indicate the tasks, deadlines, means and mechanisms for their formation and implementation.
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