Calculation of GDP by value added. Ways to measure GDP

The volume of output of all final goods and services, expressed in actual market prices of the current year, is called nominal gross domestic product. The indicator of nominal GDP depends on the amount of final goods and services produced in the country, and on the level of prices for them. Naturally, nominal GDP cannot be used to assess the growth or contraction of real output.

The volume of output of all final goods and services, expressed in constant prices, i.e., in prices that have developed in any year recognized as the base, is called real gross domestic product. Real GDP is independent of price changes. It reflects the level and dynamics of final goods and services produced in the country. Real GDP is thus "cleared" of the effects of inflation. To determine the value of real output, you need to adjust the nominal GDP. To determine the volume of production, you need to know the price level, which is expressed as an index. Most common index consumer prices(CPI) and GDP deflator.

Consumer price index - the ratio between the aggregate price of a certain set of goods and services (market basket) for a given time period and the aggregate price of a similar group of goods and services in the base period. Calculated using the Laspeyres index.

The consumer price index is calculated as the quotient of the product of the prices of the current year for the output of the base year and the sum of the product of the price level and the output of the base year. The whole fraction is then multiplied by 100%.

GDP deflator- price index for all final goods and services, the cost of which is included in the GDP of the country, region. Represents the ratio of nominal GDP, expressed in current year market prices, to real GDP, expressed in base year prices. Calculated using the Paasche index.

Differences between CPI and GDP deflator, besides using different weights (of the base year for the CPI and the current year for the GDP deflator), are as follows:

· The CPI is calculated based only on the prices of goods included in the consumer basket, while the GDP deflator takes into account all goods produced by the economy;

· when calculating the CPI, imported consumer goods are also taken into account, and when determining the GDP deflator, only goods produced by the national economy;

· Both the GDP deflator and the CPI can be used to determine the general level of prices and the rate of inflation, but the CPI also serves as the basis for calculating the rate of change in the cost of living and the "poverty line" and developing social security programs on their basis;
The inflation rate (equal to the ratio of the difference in the price level (for example, the GDP deflator) of the current (t) and the previous year (t - 1) to the price level of the previous year, expressed as a percentage:

Inflation rate = current year's GDP deflator – previous year's GDP deflator years * 100%;
The rate of change in the cost of living is calculated similarly, but through the CPI and is equal to:
COLI rate = current year's CPI – previous year's CPI * 100%

· in macroeconomic models, the GDP deflator is usually used as an indicator of the general price level, which is denoted by the letter P and is measured only in relative terms (for example, 1.2; 2.5; 3.8);

· The CPI overstates the general price level and the inflation rate, while the GDP deflator underestimates these figures. This happens for two reasons:

a) The CPI underestimates structural shifts in consumption (the effect of substitution of relatively more expensive goods by relatively cheaper ones), since it is calculated based on the structure of the consumer basket of the base year, i.e. assigns the structure of consumption of the base year to the current year (for example, if oranges have risen in price relative to this year, then consumers will increase demand for tangerines, and the structure of the consumer basket will change - the share (weight) of oranges in it will decrease, and the share (weight) of tangerines will increase. Meanwhile , this change will not be taken into account when calculating the CPI, and the current year will be assigned the weight (the number of kilograms relative to more expensive oranges and relatively cheaper tangerines consumed per year) of the base year, and the cost of the consumer basket will be artificially inflated. (substitution effect) by assigning the weights of the current year to the base year;

b) CPI ignores the change in prices of goods due to changes in their quality (an increase in prices for goods is considered as if by itself, and does not take into account that a higher price for a product may be associated with a change in its quality. It is obvious that the price of an iron with a vertical ironing is higher than the price of an ordinary iron, however, in the consumer basket, this product appears as simply “iron”). Meanwhile, the GDP deflator overestimates this fact and underestimates the inflation rate.
Due to the fact that both indices have shortcomings and cannot accurately reflect the change in the general price level, the so-called “ideal” Fisher index can be used, which removes these shortcomings and is the geometric mean of the Paasche index and the Laspeyres index:

The Fisher Index is used to more accurately calculate the growth rate of the general price level, i.e. the rate of inflation. Depending on whether the general price level (P - price level) (usually determined using a deflator) has increased or decreased over the period of time that has passed from the base year to the current year, nominal GDP can be either higher or lower than real GDP. If during this period the general price level increased, i.e. GDP deflator > 1, then real GNP will be less than nominal. If, however, during the period from the base year to the current price level has decreased, i.e. GDP deflator< 1, то реальный ВВП будет больше номинального.

Question 12: Macroeconomic indicators and indices (employment indicators, inflation and cost of living indicators, nominal and real interest rates, balance of payments, indices of leading, lagging and coincidence indicators, etc.).

Economic indicators are macroeconomic indicators, published in the form of reports by the government or independent organizations and reflecting the state of national economy. They are published at a specific time and provide the market with information about whether the economy has improved or worsened. Any deviation from the norm can provoke a significant fluctuation in price and volume. Let's consider some of them.

Gross domestic product- the total value of all goods and services produced during the year on the territory of the country without dividing the resources used for their production into imported and domestic.
The two most commonly used methods for calculating GDP are:

  • by summing up all the incomes in the economy: wages, interest on capital, profits and rents;
  • by summing up all expenditures made: consumption, investment, government purchases of goods and services, and net exports.

Gold reserves- state reserves of gold and foreign currency held by the central bank or financial institutions, as well as state-owned gold and foreign currency in international monetary organizations.
The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves are a financial reserve, through which, if necessary, government debt payments or budgetary expenditures can be made. In addition, the availability of reserves allows the Central Bank to control the dynamics of the national currency through interventions in the foreign exchange market.
The size of the country's gold and foreign exchange reserves should significantly cover the volume money supply in circulation, secure both sovereign and private payments on external debt, and guarantee three months of imports. When such a level of gold and foreign exchange reserves is reached, the Central Bank is able to effectively control the movement of the national currency and interest rates in the economy.

State debt are debt obligations of the state to individuals and legal entities, foreign states, international organizations and other entities international law.
Borrowed funds from the population, economic entities and other countries are placed at the disposal of state bodies, turning into additional financial resources. As a rule, government loans in various forms are used to cover the budget deficit.
The source of repayment of government loans and the payment of interest on them are budget funds, where these expenses are allocated annually in a separate line. In the context of a growing budget deficit or lack of funds to service the debt, the state may resort to restructuring its debts by writing off, buying back or securitizing (a situation where the debtor country issues new debt in the form of bonds that are either directly exchanged for old debt or sold )

Refinancing rate- the interest rate used by the central bank when granting loans commercial banks under refinancing.
The refinancing rate is an instrument of monetary regulation, through which the central bank influences the rates of the interbank market, as well as the rates on loans and deposits, which provide credit organizations legal and individuals.
This factor is extremely important, because it determines the overall return on investment in the country's economy (interest on bank deposits, return on investments in bonds, the level of the average rate of return, etc.). Speaking of rates, one should keep in mind real interest rates, that is, the nominal interest minus the inflation rate.
By lowering or increasing the base rate, the Central Bank can strengthen or weaken the interest of commercial banks in obtaining additional reserves by borrowing from it. When the rate is lowered, the cost of borrowed money decreases, and, as a result, the volume of corporate investment and household spending increases, stimulating GDP growth. Conversely, an increase in the rate deters investment and spending, which slows down the growth of the economy.

Money indicators

It should be noted that in different countries the approach to determining the composition and volume of the money supply may be different. As a rule, economists use the following definitions for it:

  • M 0 = cash in circulation;
  • M 1 \u003d M 0 + checking deposits;
  • M 2 = M 1 + checkless savings accounts + money market deposit accounts + small term deposits (less than $100,000) + money market mutual funds;
  • M 3 \u003d M 2 + large term deposits (over $ 100 thousand)

Cash and checkable deposits held by the government, banks or other financial institutions are excluded from M1 and other measures of the money supply. This is necessary to avoid double counting.
Most often, when speaking about the money supply, they refer to M 1, because its definition covers only those components that are directly and directly used as monetary circulation. At the same time, the money supply in the form of cash is only a small part of it. In the calculations of the population, plastic cards are gradually replacing cash from real circulation, the share of non-cash payments using settlement and current accounts and checks - liabilities of commercial banks and savings institutions - in developed countries accounts for up to 90%.
M 2 includes, in addition to the components of M 1, highly liquid financial assets, which, although they do not function directly as a medium of exchange, can, if necessary, easily and without the risk of financial losses be converted into cash or checkable deposits - components of M 1 - for example, short-term government securities, checkless savings accounts, time deposits.
M 3, in addition to the components of M 2, also includes large term deposits, which are usually owned by business structures in the form of certificates of deposit; if desired, they can also be turned into checking deposits. Such certificates have their own market, and they can be sold at any time, although this is associated with the risk of financial loss. Sometimes the M 3 category also includes even less liquid financial assets - government securities that can be converted into the M 1 category.

Payment balance- the ratio of payments received in this country from abroad, and payments made by it abroad during a certain period of time (year, quarter, month). The balance of payments includes payments on foreign trade operations (balance of trade), services (international transportation, insurance, etc.), non-trade operations (maintenance of representative offices, secondment of specialists, international tourism), as well as payments in the form of interest on loans and in the form of income from capital investments . The balance of payments includes the movement of capital: investments and loans.
The balance of payments characterizes the ratio of the amounts of payments made by a country abroad during a certain period of time and received by the country during the same period.
The balance of payments consists of three main sections:

  • trade balance;
  • balance of services and non-commercial payments (balance on "invisible" operations);
  • balance of movement of capital and creditors.

Unemployment rate

Unemployment is a socio-economic situation in which part of the active, able-bodied population cannot find work that these people are able to perform. Unemployment is due to the excess of the number of people who want to find a job over the number of available jobs that correspond to the profile and qualifications of applicants for these places.
There are the following types of unemployment:
1. Frictional unemployment is associated with the search for or expectation of work in the near future. If there is freedom to choose a profession, type and type of activity, some workers find themselves in a position "between jobs". Some voluntarily change jobs, others are fired, and they are looking for new job and others lose their seasonal jobs. This type of unemployment is inevitable, and even desirable, because many workers change the type of activity to a more qualified and highly paid one, and thus there is a more rational distribution of labor resources.
2. Structural unemployment arises in connection with a drop in demand for labor in any industry - for example, when with the development of technology or a change in consumer demand, there is no need to produce any product. At the same time, the experience that workers in this industry have is not in demand, so it takes time for them to master a new profession or move to another region where there is a demand for their services.
3. Cyclical unemployment occurs during a downturn in the economy, when demand for goods and services decreases, employment decreases, and, as a result, unemployment rises. Therefore, cyclical unemployment is sometimes called demand-deficit unemployment.

leading indicators. The Composite Leading Indicator Index consists of 11 series of Employment Margin Adjustment measures; capital investments; investment in inventory; profitability; cash and financial flows. The leading indicator index includes:

  1. The average number of working hours spent on production, or the number of workers employed in productive activities (excluding management personnel).
  2. Weekly average of initial claims for state unemployment insurance benefits.
  3. New orders to the manufacturer.
  4. Efficiency of product delivery to wholesale trade.
  5. Contracts and orders for production equipment.
  6. Index of permits for new construction of private housing.
  7. Change in cash and ordered inventory.
  8. Changing the elastic prices of materials.
  9. Share price index (1941-1943 = 10).
  10. Real den. mass, M2.
  11. Changes in outstanding consumer and business loans.

The first two sets of measurements relate to labor market adjustment and are inversely related: as the number of working hours/workers increases, the volume of new UI claims decreases. The next two rows link orders and deliveries and are also in inverse proportion: with an increase in orders and the creation of tension in the delivery system, the quality of the work of the latter suffers. Rows 5-7 measure fixed investment, which is an indicator of long-term economics. prospects and directly follow economic trends. The eighth row takes into account the change in inventory. Rows 9 and 10 show profitability by estimating costs and benefits under normal business activity. The last two rows are indicators of the money supply and the availability of credit.
The value of the LEI index itself is built from these components as a weighted average:

Composite index weights tried to choose different ways, but recently statisticians have come to the conclusion that in the simplest case, with the same weights, the indicator works no worse than in more complex options.
This index is based on the idea that the main motivating force in the economy is the expectation of future profits. In anticipation of rising profits, companies are expanding the production of goods and services, investing in new plants and equipment; accordingly, this activity declines when a decline in revenues is foreseen. Therefore, the index is designed in such a way that it covers all the main areas and indicators of business activity: employment, production and income, consumption, trade, investment, stocks, prices, money and credit.
One should keep in mind the rather high volatility of the LEI: in the growth stage, the average deviation from the average value is about 0.8%, and in a recession, up to 1.2%. The main role of the indicator is to predict the turning points of cycles.

Match indicators. The Composite Index of Matching Indicators consists of 4 series that take into account employment, personal income, industrial production, and product sales. May products. The highest and lowest values ​​of these series basically coincided with the general trends in the economy. The actual rows used are:

  1. The number of employees, excluding those employed in the village. X.
  2. Personal income minus transfers.
  3. Industrial production index.
  4. Realization of manufactured products. Matching indicators are grouped into three categories: employment, production and income, and consumption.

lagging indicators. A complex index of lagging indicators consists of 7 rows, which take into account employment, inventory, profitability, financial conditions. market. The highest and lowest values ​​of these series generally took place later than the peaks and recessions of the corresponding business (economic) activity cycle, so they are associated with some inertia or adaptive expectations. These rows include the following:

  1. Average duration of unemployment.
  2. The ratio of inventories to the volume of sales in the areas of production and trade.
  3. Index of labor costs per unit of output in production.
  4. Average base rate.
  5. Outstanding loans to commercial and industrial enterprises.
  6. The ratio of consumer credit with installment repayment to personal income.
  7. Change in the consumer price index for services.

With the exception of the employment series, which is counter-cyclical, these indicators follow economic trends directly, with a slight lag. Lagging indicators are used to confirm that a peak or trough has already been passed. If an apparent peak in coincidence indicators is not followed by a corresponding peak in lagging indicators, then the turning points of the BUSINESS CYCLE will not be established.


Similar information.


As already noted, the main indicators in the SNA are three indicators of total product: gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), net national product (NNP) and three indicators of total income: national income (NI), personal income (PD). ), disposable personal income (DPI)

q NNP (Net National Product - NNP) characterizes the national output, this indicator characterizes the production potential of the economy, since it includes only net investment and does not include recovery investment (depreciation). Therefore, to get NNP, depreciation should be subtracted from GNP: NNP \u003d GNP - A

NNP can be calculated by both expenditures and incomes.

q National income (National Income - NI) is the total income earned owners of economic resources, i.e. the amount of factor income. It can be obtained: a) or, if indirect taxes are deducted from NNP: NI = NNP - indirect taxes ; b) or, if we sum up all factor incomes:

q Personal income, unlike national income, is total income received owners of economic resources. To calculate the FA, it is necessary to subtract from the FA everything that is not available to households, i.e. is part of the collective, not personal income, and add everything that increases their income, but is not included in the ND:

q Disposable personal income is the income used, i.e. available households. It is less than personal income by the amount of individual taxes that the owners of economic resources must pay in the form of direct (primarily income) taxes:

Disposable personal income is based on national income:

RLD = ND - corporate profits + dividends on shares of individuals - taxes (direct) + transfer payments (social payments).

The SNA indicators quantify the total product and total income, but they do not reflect the quality of life, the level of well-being, which grow more slowly than GDP and NI, which do not take into account the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution and economic growth. To characterize the level of well-being, as a rule, such indicators are used as

a) the value of GDP per capita, i.e. GDP / population of the country; or

b) the value of the national income per capita, i.е. ND / population of the country.

To allow for cross-country comparisons, these figures are calculated in US dollars.

In order to more accurately assess the level of well-being in 1972, two American economists - the laureate Nobel Prize James Tobin and William Nordhaus (co-author of the Nobel laureate Paul Samuelson in writing the world-famous textbook "Economics") - proposed a method for calculating the indicator called " Net Economic Welfare” (Net Economic Welfare). This indicator includes the valuation of everything that improves well-being, but is not taken into account in GDP (value of goods) (for example: the amount of free time for raising the level of education, raising children, self-improvement; working for oneself; improving the level and quality of medical care, pollution reduction environment etc.). But when calculating this indicator, the value of everything that worsens the quality of life, reduces the level of well-being (value of bads) is subtracted from the value of GDP (for example: the level of morbidity and mortality, the quality of education, life expectancy, the crime rate, the degree of environmental pollution, negative consequences of urbanization, etc.).

All main indicators in the system of national accounts reflect the results economic activity per year, i.e. are expressed in prices of a given year (at current prices) and are therefore nominal. Nominal indicators do not allow for both cross-country comparisons and comparisons of the level economic development the same country at different times. Such comparisons can only be made using real indicators (indicators of real output and real income), which are expressed in constant (comparable) prices. Therefore, it is important to distinguish between nominal and real (cleared from the influence of changes in the price level) indicators.

Nominal GDP is the GDP calculated at current prices, at the prices of the given year. Two factors influence the value of nominal GDP:

1) change in real output

2) change in the price level.

In order to measure real GDP, it is necessary to "clear" nominal GNP from the effect of changes in the price level.

Real GDP is GDP measured in comparable (constant) prices, in base year prices. At the same time, any year can be chosen as the base year, chronologically both earlier and later than the current one.

The general price level is calculated using a price index. Obviously, in the base year, nominal GDP is equal to real GDP, and the price index is equal to 100% or

Nominal GDP any year, since it is calculated in current prices, is Σp t q t, and real GDP, calculated in base year prices, is Σp 0 q t . Both nominal and real GDP are calculated in monetary units (in rubles, dollars, etc.).

If the percentage changes in nominal GDP, real GDP and the general price level (and this is the inflation rate) are known, then the relationship between these indicators is as follows:

There are several types of price indices:

3) GNP deflator, etc.

Consumer price index(CPI) is the ratio of the market price of a certain set of goods and services (market basket) in a given year to the market price of the same set in the base year. It is calculated on the basis of the value of the market basket of goods, which includes a set of goods and services consumed by a typical urban family during the year. In developed countries, the consumer basket includes 300-400 types of consumer goods and services.

Producer price index (PPI) is calculated as the cost of a basket of industrial goods (intermediate products) and includes, for example, 3200 items in the USA. Both CPI and PPI are statistically calculated as indexes with weights (volumes) of the base year, i.e. how Laspeyres index:

CPI = I L = 100%

GDP deflator , calculated on the basis of the value of the basket of final goods and services produced in the economy during the year. Statistically, the GDP deflator is Paasche index, i.e. index with weights (volumes) of the current year:

def GDP = = ´ 100% = * 100%

Inflation rate  is equal to the ratio of the difference in the price level (for example, the GDP deflator) of the current (t) and the previous year (t - 1) to the price level of the previous year, expressed as a percentage:

π = * 100%

Rate of change in the cost of living calculated similarly , but through the CPI is equal to:

φ = * 100%

Due to the fact that both indices have shortcomings and cannot accurately reflect the change in the general price level, the so-called “ideal” Fisher index can be used, which removes these shortcomings and is the geometric mean of the Paasche index and the Laspeyres index:

TOPIC 3. ECONOMIC CYCLE.

In reality, the economy does not develop along a straight line (trend), which characterizes economic growth, but through constant deviations from the trend, through recessions and upswings. The economy develops cyclically (see Fig..1.).

The economic cycle is a recurring and successive ups and downs of economic activity against the backdrop of a general trend of economic growth.

The business cycle represents fluctuations in business activity. These fluctuations irregular and unpredictable Therefore, the term "cycle" is rather conditional.

Figure 1. Change in GDP over time.

Figure 1 shows a possible picture of the cycle. Years are plotted on the x-axis. On the y-axis - volume GDP as the most common indicator of economic activity. The straight line depicts the trend of economic growth (trend), that is, it represents the dynamics of volume potential GDP in time. The wavy line depicts the actual cyclical development of the economy, that is, it represents the dynamics over time of the volume actual GDP (in nominal terms).

Potential GDP is the maximum amount of real output that an economy can produce in a certain period of time (usually a year) with full and efficient use of all available factors of production and available technology. Potential GDP, therefore, determines the production potential of the economy and depends on the volume of the total labor force and labor productivity. Actual GDP- the volume of real output created in the economy for a certain period.

Level actual GDP determined by the interaction of aggregate demand and potential GDP . If aggregate demand is less than potential GDP, then the level of the actual GDP will be below potential GDP, since it will be equal to the level of aggregate demand. With an increase in aggregate demand, the actual GDP can reach the level of potential GDP, but by definition it cannot be higher than it (Fig. 1). On fig. 1 actual GDP presented in nominal terms: upward deviations of the wavy line from the trend indicate inflation.

The cycle is usually divided into two phases (Fig. 2 a):

1) recession or recession(recession), which lasts from peak to bottom. A particularly long and deep recession is called depression(depression). It is no coincidence that the crisis of 1929-1933 was called the Great Depression;

2) phase of recovery or revival(recovery), which continues from the bottom to the peak.

There is another approach in which four phases are distinguished in the economic cycle (Fig. 2b), but extreme points are not distinguished, since it is assumed that when the economy reaches a maximum or minimum of business activity, then for a certain period of time (sometimes quite long) it is in this state:

1) I phase - boom(boom), at which the economy reaches its maximum activity. This is the period overemployment(the economy is above the level of potential output, above the trend) and inflation. (Recall that when actual GDP is higher than potential GDP in an economy, this corresponds to inflation gap). The economy in this state is called " overheated"("overheated economy");

2) P phase - recession(recession or slump). The economy gradually returns to the level of the trend (potential GDP), the level of business activity is reduced, the actual GDP reaches its potential level, and then begins to fall below the trend, which leads the economy to the next phase - the crisis;

3) W phase - a crisis(crisis) or stagnation(stagnation), i.e. depression or stagnation. The economy is in a recessionary gap because actual GDP is less than potential. This is a period of underutilization of economic resources, i.e. high unemployment. difference recession from depression is that on recession the price level stays the same if recession develops into depression the price level falls.

4) IV phase - revival or rise. The economy gradually begins to recover from the crisis, the actual GDP approaches its potential level, and then exceeds it until it reaches its maximum, which again leads to the boom phase.

AT economic theory A variety of phenomena were declared to be the causes of economic cycles: sunspots and the level of solar activity; wars, revolutions and military coups; presidential elections; insufficient level of consumption; high population growth rates; optimism and pessimism of investors; change in the money supply; technical and technological innovations; price shocks and others. In fact, all these reasons can be reduced to one.

The main reason for economic cycles is the mismatch between aggregate demand and aggregate supply, between aggregate spending and aggregate output.. Therefore, the cyclical nature of the development of the economy can be explained: either change in aggregate demand with a constant value of aggregate supply (an increase in aggregate spending leads to a rise, their reduction causes a recession); or change in aggregate supply with a constant value of aggregate demand (a decrease in aggregate supply means a recession in the economy, its growth means a rise).

Allocate different kinds cycles by duration:

· centennial cycles lasting a hundred or more years;

· "Kondratiev cycles”, whose duration is 50-70 years and which are named after the outstanding Russian economist N.D. Kondratiev, who developed the theory of “long waves of the economic situation” Kondratiev suggested that the most destructive crises occur when the points of maximum decline in business activity of the “long-wave cycle" and classical. Long-wavelength Kondratiev cycles are based on the service life of industrial and non-industrial buildings and structures (the passive part of physical capital). Kondratiev singled out the cycles 1790-1850, 1851-1890, 1891-1928, 1829-1975, now the fifth one is underway.

· classic cycles(the first "classical" crisis (crisis of overproduction) occurred in England in 1825, and since 1856 such crises have become global), which last 10-12 years and are associated with a massive renewal of fixed capital, i.e. equipment (due to the increasing value of the obsolescence of fixed capital, the duration of such cycles has decreased in modern conditions). Those. after about 10-12 years, physical wear and tear of equipment (the active part of physical capital) occurs, which explains the duration of "classical" cycles. Since 1857, the cycle has become global in nature, since this year the economic downturn (recession) hit all the most developed countries. The deepest decline in the capitalist countries took place in 1929-1933 and went down in history under the name "The Great Depression» : the decline in production reached 40% in some countries.

· Kitchin cycles lasting 2-3 years. In modern conditions, of paramount importance for the replacement of equipment is not physical, but its obsolescence, which occurs in connection with the emergence of more productive, more advanced equipment, and since fundamentally new technical and technological solutions appear at intervals of 4-6 years, the duration of cycles becomes shorter . In addition, many economists attribute the duration of cycles to the massive renewal of consumer durables (some economists even suggest that they be classified as investment goods purchased by households) occurring at intervals of 2-3 years.

In the modern economy, the duration of the phases of the cycle and the amplitude of fluctuations can be very different. It depends, first of all, on the cause of the crisis, as well as on the characteristics of the economy in different countries: the degree of state intervention, the nature of economic regulation, the share and level of development of the service sector (non-productive sector), the conditions for the development and use of the scientific and technological revolution.

TOPIC 4 UNEMPLOYMENT.

The economically active population is divided into employed and unemployed.

Thus, the total labor force is divided into two parts:

1. busy(E) - i.e. having a job, and it doesn’t matter if a person is employed full-time or part-time, full-time working week or incomplete. A person is also considered employed if he does not work for the following reasons: a) he is on vacation; b) sick; c) is on strike; and d) because of bad weather;

2. unemployed(U) - i.e. unemployed but actively looking for one. Job search is main criterion distinguishing the unemployed from those not included in the labor force.

Indicators of the number of employed and unemployed, the labor force and the number not included in the labor force are indicators of flows. There are constant movements between the categories of "employed", "unemployed" and "not included in the labor force". Some of the employed lose their jobs, becoming unemployed. A certain proportion of the unemployed find work by becoming employed. Some of the employed leave their jobs and leave the public sector of the economy (for example, by retiring or becoming a housewife), and some of the unemployed, in despair, stop looking for work, which increases the number of those not included in the labor force. At the same time, some people who are not employed in social production begin an active job search (non-working women; graduates of higher educational establishments students; delusional vagabonds). Typically, in a stable economy, the number of people who lose their jobs is equal to the number of people actively looking for one.

The main indicator of unemployment is the unemployment rate. Unemployment rate(rate of unemployment - u) is unemployment ratio to total workforce(the sum of the number of employed and unemployed), expressed as a percentage: or

where u- unemployment rate, U- unemployed, L- work force. Because the labor force L) is the sum of the unemployed (U) and employed ( e), the unemployment rate defines the share of the unemployed in the (total) labor force, expressed as a percentage.

There are three main causes of unemployment:

1. job loss (layoff);

2. voluntary resignation from work;

3. first appearance in the labor market.

There are three type of unemployment: frictional, structural and cyclic.

frictional unemployment(from the word "friction" - friction) is associated with job search. Obviously, finding a job takes time and effort, so a person who is waiting or looking for a job is unemployed for some time. A feature of frictional unemployment is that people are already looking for work ready-made specialists with a certain level of professional training and qualifications. Therefore, the main cause of this type of unemployment is imperfection of information(information about the availability of vacancies). A person who loses his job today usually cannot find another job tomorrow.

The frictional unemployed include:

Dismissed from work by order of the administration;

Resigned of their own free will;

Awaiting reinstatement in their previous jobs;

Those who have found a job, but have not yet started it;

Seasonal workers (out of season);

People who first appeared on the labor market and have the level of professional training and qualifications required in the economy.

Structural unemployment due to structural changes in the economy, which are associated a) with a change in the structure of demand for products of different industries and b) with a change in the sectoral structure of the economy, the cause of which is scientific and technological progress. The structure of demand is constantly changing. Demand for the products of some industries is increasing, leading to an increase in the demand for labor, while demand for the products of other industries is falling, leading to a reduction in employment, layoffs of workers and an increase in unemployment.

Structural unemployment is more long-lasting and costly than frictional unemployment because finding work in new industries without special retraining and retraining almost impossible. However, like frictional, structural unemployment is an inevitable phenomenon and natural(i.e. associated with natural processes in the development and movement of labor) even in highly developed economies, since the structure of demand for the products of different industries is constantly changing and the sectoral structure of the economy is constantly changing due to scientific and technological progress, and therefore the economy is constantly undergoing and there will always be structural shifts, provoking structural unemployment. Therefore, if there is only frictional and structural unemployment in the economy, then this corresponds to the state full time labor force, and the actual output in this case is equal to the potential.

Cyclical unemployment (unemployment of insufficient demand) occurs as a result of a decrease in business activity. As business activity grows, it shrinks.

Factors of cyclical unemployment:

The level of recession in the economy;

Character economic policy fight the recession;

Institutional drivers of wage rigidity: Barriers to wage cuts lead to large reductions in employment during a downturn.

Respectively measures to reduce the level of cyclical unemployment- demand stimulation, institutional measures.

seasonal unemployment is also under-demand unemployment. It is observed in certain industries that are subject to cyclical fluctuations (agriculture, construction, etc.). Less significant seasonal fluctuations in the automotive industry, in light industry.

Natural rate of unemployment(u*) is the level at which the full employment of the labor force, i.e. the most effective and rational use of it. This means that all people who want to work find work. The natural rate of unemployment is therefore called unemployment rate at full employment, and the output corresponding to the natural rate of unemployment is called natural output. Since full employment of the labor force means that there is only frictional and structural unemployment in the economy, the natural rate of unemployment can be calculated as the sum of frictional and structural unemployment rates:

The natural rate of unemployment changes over time. So, in the early 60s, it was 4% of the workforce, and now 6% - 7%. The reason for the increase in the natural rate of unemployment is the increase in the duration of the search for work (i.e. the length of time when people are unemployed), which may be due to:

1. increase in the amount of unemployment benefits;

2. an increase in the duration of the payment of unemployment benefits;

3. an increase in the share of women in the labor force;

4. increasing the share of youth in the labor market

Allocate economic and non-economic consequences of unemployment, which are manifested both at the individual level and at the social level.

Non-economic consequences of unemployment are the psychological and social and political consequences of losing a job.

At the individual level, the non-economic consequences of unemployment are that if a person cannot find a job for a long time, this often leads to psychological stress, despair, nervous (up to suicide) and cardiovascular diseases the breakdown of the family. The loss of a stable source of income can push a person to a crime (theft and even murder), antisocial behavior.

At the level of society, this, first of all, means the growth of social tension, up to political upheavals. Indeed, military coups and revolutions are associated precisely with a high level of social and economic instability. In addition, the social consequences of unemployment are an increase in the level of morbidity and mortality in the country, as well as an increase in the level of crime. The costs of unemployment should also include those losses that society incurs in connection with the costs of education, training and providing a certain level of skills to people who, as a result, are unable to apply them, and, therefore, recoup.

Economic consequences of unemployment at the individual level consist in the loss of income or part of income (i.e., a decrease in current income), as well as in the loss of qualifications (which is especially bad for people in the newest professions) and therefore a decrease in the chances of finding a well-paid, prestigious job in the future (i.e., a possible decrease in the level future earnings).

Economic consequences of unemployment at the level of society as a whole consist in the underproduction of the gross national product, the lag of actual GDP from potential GDP. The presence of cyclical unemployment (when the actual unemployment rate exceeds its natural rate) means that resources are not fully utilized. Therefore, actual GDP is less than potential (GDP at full employment of resources). The lag (gap) of actual GDP from potential GDP (GDP gap) is calculated as the percentage of the difference between actual and potential GDP to the value of potential GDP:

where Y is actual GNP and Y* is potential GDP.

The relationship between the lag in output (at that time, GNP) and the level of cyclical unemployment empirically, based on a study of US statistics for a number of decades, was derived by economic adviser to President John F. Kennedy, American economist Arthur Okun (A. Okun). In the early 1960s, he proposed a formula that showed the relationship between the lag between actual output and potential output and the level of cyclical unemployment. This relationship is called Okun's law.

The GDP gap formula is written on the left side of the equation. On the right side, u is the actual unemployment rate, u* is the natural unemployment rate, so (u - u*) is the cyclical unemployment rate, b - Okun's ratio(b > 0). This coefficient shows by what percentage the actual volume of output is reduced in comparison with the potential (i.e., by what percentage the backlog increases) if the actual unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, i.e. this is sensitivity factor lagging GDP to a change in the level of cyclical unemployment. For the US economy in those years, according to Okun's calculations, it was 2.5%. For other countries and other times, it may be numerically different. The minus sign in front of the expression on the right side of the equation means that the relationship between actual GDP and the level of cyclical unemployment is inverse (the higher the unemployment rate, the lower the value of actual GDP compared to potential).

The backlog of the actual GDP of any year can be calculated not only in relation to the potential volume of output, but also in relation to the actual GDP of the previous year. The formula for such a calculation was also proposed by A. Okun:

where Y t is the actual GDP of the given year, Y t - 1 is the actual GDP of the previous year, i.e. on the left side of the equation, the formula for lagging GDP by years is written, u t is the actual unemployment rate of this year, u t - 1 is the actual unemployment rate of the previous year, 3% is the growth rate of potential GNP due to: a) population growth, b) capital-labor ratio growth and c) scientific and technological progress; 2 is the percentage by which actual GDP declines when the unemployment rate rises by 1 percentage point (meaning that if the unemployment rate rises by 1 percentage point, actual GDP falls by 2%). This ratio was calculated by Oken based on an analysis of empirical (statistical) data for the US economy, so it may be different for other countries.

Since unemployment is a serious macroeconomic problem and is an indicator of macroeconomic instability, the state is taking measures to combat it. For different types Unemployment, since they are due to different causes, different measures are used. Common to all types of unemployment are such measures as:

Payment of unemployment benefits;

Establishment of employment services (employment offices).

Specific measures to combat frictional unemployment are:

Improving the system for collecting and providing information on the availability of vacancies (not only in this city, but also in other cities and regions);

Creation of special services for these purposes.

To combat structural unemployment, measures such as:

Creation public services and institutions for retraining and retraining;

Assistance to private services of this type.

The main means of combating cyclical unemployment are:

Carrying out an anti-cyclical (stabilization) policy,

Aimed at preventing deep declines in production and, consequently, mass unemployment;

Creation of additional jobs in the public sector of the economy.

TOPIC 5. INFLATION.

Inflation("inflation" - from the Italian word "inflatio", which means "swelling") is a steady upward trend in the general price level.

The following words are important in this definition:

1) sustainable, which means that inflation is a long process, a steady trend, and therefore it should be distinguished from price jump;

2) general price level. This means that inflation does not mean an increase in all prices in the economy. Prices for individual goods can behave differently: rise, fall, remain unchanged. It is important that the overall price index increase, i.e. GDP deflator.

The opposite of inflation is deflation, a steady downward trend in the general price level. There is also the concept of disinflation (desinflation), which means a decrease in the rate of inflation. The main indicator of inflation is the rate (or level) of inflation (rate of inflation - p), which is calculated as a percentage of the difference in price levels of the current and previous year to the price level of the previous year:

or

where P t is the general price level (GDP deflator) of the current year, and P t – 1 is the general price level (GDP deflator) of the previous year. Thus, the inflation rate indicator characterizes not the growth rate of the general price level, but rate of increase general price level.

One of the serious problems of inflation is the uneven growth of prices for various goods. While the prices of some goods can rise sharply, for others they rise more slowly and with a delay. As a rule, with the greatest delay, wage rates begin to rise.

If the inflation rate is known, then "rules of magnitude 70" one can quickly calculate the number of years it takes for the price level to double. To do this, the number "70" is divided by the (average annual) inflation rate : 70/p.

An increase in the price level reduces the purchasing power of money. The purchasing power (value) of money is understood as the amount of goods and services that can be bought with one monetary unit. If the prices of goods rise, then the same amount of money can buy fewer goods than before, so the value of money falls.

Depending on the criteria, different types inflation. If the criterion is the rate (level) of inflation, then there are: moderate inflation, galloping inflation, high inflation and hyperinflation.

Moderate inflation (creeping) measured as a percentage per year, and its level is 3-5% (up to 10%). This kind of inflation is considered normal for a modern economy and is even considered an incentive to increase output.

Galloping inflation also measured in percentages per year, but its pace is in double digits and is considered a serious economic problem for developed countries.

High inflation measured in percentages per month and can be 200-300% or more per year (note that the calculation of inflation for the year uses the "compound interest" formula), which is observed in many developing countries and countries with economies in transition.

Hyperinflation, measured by percentages per week and even per day, the level of which is 40-50% per month or more than 1000% per year. Classical examples of hyperinflation are the situation in Germany in January 1922-December 1924, when the growth rate of the price level amounted to 10 12 and in Hungary (August 1945-July 1946), where the price level increased 3.8 * 10 27 times over the year with an average monthly growth by 198 times.

If the criterion is manifestations of inflation, then they distinguish: explicit (open) inflation and suppressed (hidden) inflation.

open(explicit) inflation manifested in the observed increase in the general level of prices.

repressed(hidden) inflation takes place when prices are set by the state, and at a level lower than the equilibrium market level (set by the ratio of supply and demand for commodity market). The main form of manifestation of latent inflation is the shortage of goods.

There are two main causes of inflation: 1) increase in aggregate demand,2) reduction in aggregate supply.

In accordance with the reason that caused the increase in the general level of prices, two types of inflation are distinguished: demand-pull inflation and cost-push inflation.

Demand inflation.

If the cause of inflation is an increase in aggregate demand, then this type is called demand inflation(demand-pull inflation).

An increase in aggregate demand can be caused either by an increase in any of the components of total spending (consumer, investment, government, and net exports) or by an increase in the money supply.

For more than 50 years, the question of the relationship between unemployment and gross domestic product (GDP) has been discussed. For the first time, the head of the Council of Economic Advisers of President Johnson's administration in the United States, Arthur Ouken, gave a description of this phenomenon. The essence of his theory is that a 3% decrease in the rate of economic development, expressed in the volume of production and output, the provision of services and the performance of work, causes an increase in unemployment by 1%. However, there is a reverse version of the relationship between unemployment and GDP. Thus, according to the Chaddock scale, the strength of the relationship between factors can be qualitatively characterized as “moderate”, i.e. in 28.64%, a change in unemployment leads to a change in GDP. Based on two theories, we will analyze this trend in the Russian Federation.

Consider data on unemployment and GDP in Russia from 2001 to 2015.

According to official data from Rosstat, the average number of employed people in the Russian Federation in 2014 amounted to 71,539 thousand people. In 2015, there is an increase in the number of employed by 784.62 thousand people. Considering this economic indicator for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, we note that the highest number of employees among the 8 constituent entities of the Russian Federation is observed in the Central Federal District both in 2014 and in 2015. However, for Last year see a reduction of 107.752 thousand people. The lowest indicator is presented in the Far Eastern Federal District - 3164.986 thousand people in 2015. The general situation of the employed population in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation for 2014-2015 presented in table 1.

Table 1

Employed population by regions Russian Federation, on average per year, thousand people

Subjects of the Russian Federation

Russian Federation

Central Federal District

Southern Federal District

Volga Federal District

Ural federal district

Siberian Federal District

Crimean Federal District

In 2014, Crimea was included in the Russian Federation, which played a major role in increasing the number of employed people in Russia. In 2015, changes occurred due to an increase in the number of employees in such subjects of the Russian Federation as the North-Western, Southern, and Crimean federal districts.

Speaking about the positive change in the number of the employed population, it is necessary to consider another situation that is not so favorable. In 2015, there was an increase in the number of unemployed in Russia, which amounted to 4263.93 thousand people, and in 2016 - 3889.4 thousand people (table 2).

table 2

The number of unemployed in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, on average per year, thousand people

Subjects of the Russian Federation

Russian Federation

Central Federal District

Northwestern Federal District

Southern Federal District

North Caucasian Federal District

Volga Federal District

Ural federal district

Siberian Federal District

Far Eastern Federal District

Crimean Federal District

The increase in the number of people who have lost their jobs is due to the closure of enterprises that could not survive the economic crisis, as well as the reduction of jobs in government bodies. According to the Ministry of Labor, in 2015 the number of unemployed is the most high rate since the crisis year of 2009, when the ruble exchange rate fell quite strongly, and companies began to reduce the number of employees and the volume of production.

Consider in Figure 1 the unemployment rate in the Russian Federation over the past 15 years.

Rice. 1. Unemployment rate in the Russian Federation, in %

According to Rosstat, the unemployment rate over the past 15 years has ranged from 5.2% to 9%. The highest rate was observed in 2001 (9%), and the lowest in 2014 (5.2%).

The highest unemployment rate in the current year was recorded in the North Caucasus Federal District - 11.8% of the working population. Thus, in Ingushetia, almost half of the population does not have a permanent official job. The most successful in terms of employment was the Central District - there the share of unemployed was only 3.6%, while the highest unemployment rate was recorded in the Smolensk region - 6.4%.

Economy Russia is the sixth economy in 2015 among the countries of the world in terms of GDP at PPP. From 2001 to 2008, GDP growth was observed (Figure 2).

Rice. 2. GDP, billion rubles

This is primarily due to the signing of a number of laws by the President of the Russian Federation, which amended the tax legislation. In 2001, a new Land Code of the Russian Federation was created, and in 2001-2004. social and economic reforms were carried out (pension, etc.), which stimulated economic growth.

In 2008 - 2010 there was a decline in GDP. This is due to the world crisis developed at that time. First of all, the World Bank noted that the losses of the Russian economy turned out to be less than expected at the beginning of the crisis. As an example of the positive impact of government measures (increasing wages, unemployment benefits and the implementation of social support programs), the situation with the level of poverty is given. It may return to the pre-crisis level of 12.5% ​​in 2010, i.е. a year earlier than previously forecast. In 2009 the number of the poor in the Russian Federation was about 14%, and without government measures of socio-economic support it could have reached 16.9%.

"This was partly due to the massive package of anti-crisis measures taken by the government," the report says.

After analyzing the unemployment rate and GDP in Russia, consider their relationship.

Unemployment is a complex phenomenon, which has many nuances, it is important that this phenomenon does not exist by itself, and is always associated with certain social and economic costs. The economic losses of society are measured by the value of non-produced goods and services, the reduction in tax revenues in the state budget etc. Thus, the economic costs of unemployment, expressed in the lag in the volume of GDP, are the goods and services that society loses when its resources are in forced idle time. This pattern was revealed by the scientist - economist A. Oken. His law states that an increase in the actual unemployment rate by 1% above its natural level leads to a decrease in actual GDP compared to potential possible GDP by an average of 2.5%. According to Okun's law, unemployment rises when there is an economic downturn, but when output falls. Consider and compare the unemployment rate and GDP in Table 3.

Table 3

Unemployment and GDP in the Russian Federation for 2001 - 2015

GDP, billion rubles

Unemployment rate, %

Considering Table 3, we note that with an increase in GDP from 2001 to 2008, there is a decrease in the unemployment rate. However, in 2009 there is a decrease in GDP and an increase in unemployment. Thus, from 2009 to 2010, there was an increase in GDP by 1,713.6 billion rubles, while the unemployment rate fell by 1%. However, the observed decrease in GDP by 2349 billion rubles. led to an increase in the unemployment rate from 2014 to 2015 by 0.37%.

The GDP growth rate was much more sensitive to falls in the unemployment rate than to its growth, i.e. when the Russian economy is growing, Okun's law manifests itself more clearly than when there is a recession. Perhaps this is due to the existence of hidden unemployment.

Having revealed the theoretical relationship between the unemployment rate and GDP, we determined a statistical relationship (correlation relationship). The correlation coefficient of the considered elements was (-0.86). Based on the obtained data of the correlation coefficient, we have a fairly close inverse relationship between the unemployment rate and GDP, i.e. with an increase (decrease) in the unemployment rate, there is a decrease (increase) in GDP.

Thus, with the help of these studies, we have identified a trend of changes in the unemployment rate and GDP. Over the past 15 years, the unemployment rate has changed dramatically from 9% to 5%, however, comparing the last 2 years, there is a slight increase. Considering the GDP indicator, a reverse trend can be noted. In 2014 - 2015 gross domestic product decreased by 2349 billion rubles. Having studied the relationship between these indicators, we highlight the fact that in addition to the influence of the unemployment rate and GDP on each other, the stability of all indicators of the country's economy plays an important role.

There are three methods for calculating GDP: the production method, the distribution method (income stream method), and the consumption method (final product flow method).

The use of these methods gives the same result, since, as follows from the circular flow model, in the economy, the total income is identically equal to the value of total expenditures, and the value added is identically equal to the value of the final product. At the same time, the value of the value of the final product is nothing but the sum of the costs of end consumers for the purchase of goods and services (total product).

GDP, rated for production, is equal to the sum of the value added of all sectors of the economy. Value added is the value created during the production process at a given enterprise, it reflects the real contribution of this enterprise to the creation of the value of a particular product. Added value is equal to the difference between the value of the firm's output and the firm's costs of acquiring intermediate goods and services from other firms, plus depreciation charges.

GDP, rated distribution method, includes all types of income of owners of factors of production before taxes and two types of distribution of funds not related to the payment of income:

1) percentage;

3) wages (including all additions to wages - contributions of entrepreneurs to social insurance, health care funds, etc.);

4) profit. In the SNA, income in the form of profits is broken down into property income, that is, profits from the unincorporated business sector, and corporate profits. Corporate profits include corporate income taxes, dividends, and corporate retained earnings;

5) net indirect taxes. Net indirect taxes = Indirect taxes - government production subsidies (subsidies);

6) depreciation.

GDP, rated consumption method(for spending money), includes all expenditures of economic entities of the national economy for final consumption. Differences in spending are based on differences between types of buyers, carrying out these costs, and not on the differences in the goods and services purchased:

1) expenditures of households on goods and services, except for expenditures on the purchase of houses, - personal consumption of the population (C);

2) all expenses of firms to increase fixed capital and commodity stocks - gross private domestic investment (I). Gross investment characterizes the total number of all units of physical capital sold in a given year. If we subtract from gross investment the part that went to replace depreciated capital goods (buildings, structures, equipment, etc.), then the remaining part will be net private domestic investment. The annual deductions for the capital consumed in the production process for the purchase of investment goods in exchange for those consumed are called depreciation. To gross investment not included government capital investments, but includes all other capital investments, including those made by foreigners;


3) expenses of the state represented by federal and local authorities for the purchase of goods and services that ensure the implementation of socio-economic policy without taking into account transfer payments, which are unilateral payments by the state and are financed by taxes without creating, but only redistributing income, - government consumption (G);

4) expenses of foreigners on domestic goods and services - net exports (NX). Net exports are calculated as the difference between exports and imports.

Thus, GDP measured by spending can be expressed as a formula often referred to as the basic macroeconomic identity:

GDP = C + I + G + NX

Since GDP is expressed in money, its value can change only due to changes in prices without changing the physical volume of production. Therefore, in order to compare GDP over a number of years, the concept of nominal and real GDP has been introduced.

Nominal GDP is the value of the national output in current (actual) prices. Nominal GDP reflects changes both in physical volume national production, as well as in prices.

Real GDP is the value of the national output at constant prices, that is, the prices of the base year. In the base year, the inflation rate is assumed to be 100% or 1.

Real GDP is free from the effects of inflation (an increase in the general price level) and deflation (a fall in the general price level). Real GDP reflects changes only in the physical volume of production.

To distinguish changes in nominal GDP resulting from price movements from changes resulting from movements in physical output, a special price index called GDP deflator.The upward revision of nominal GDP levels is called inflation, downward - deflation.

The GDP deflator represents the price index of all goods and services purchased by final consumers.

In addition to the GDP deflator, market price indices for the most important goods and services included in the final product are also calculated: the consumer price index for goods and paid services population, the industrial producer price index, the construction producer price index, the index of tariffs for freight transportation, etc. All price indices describe the change in value representative(characteristic) set of goods, weighted by the quantity of each goods.

The most important index characterizing the level of inflation, which is used for the purposes public policy, analysis and forecast of price processes in the economy, revision of minimum social guarantees, resolution of legal disputes, as well as when recalculating a number of SNA indicators from current prices to constant prices is consumer price index (CPI). CPI measures the ratio of the cost of a fixed set of goods and services ( consumer basket) in the current period to its value in the base period and characterizes the change in time of the general level of prices for goods and services purchased by the population for non-productive consumption. The CPI is calculated by combining two information flows:

Data on price changes obtained by registering prices and tariffs in the consumer market;

Data on the structure of actual consumer spending of the population for the previous year.

Price indices can be constructed in two main ways: the construction of the Laspeyres index and the construction of the Paasche index. Laspeyres index base year, and is used to determine changes in consumer (retail) prices:

Accordingly, the consumer price index in a given year, expressed in fractions of a unit, will look like:

Paasche index gives a weighted average estimate of the change in the cost of a set of goods included in the basket current year. It is used in calculating the GDP deflator:

In order to make macroeconomic decisions, it is important, in addition to data reflecting actual GDP, to calculate potential GDP as well. Actual GDP characterizes the value of the national volume of production in a given economic situation, that is, produced in the period under review. Potential GDP- this is the cost of the national volume of production with the full use of all resources, that is, the maximum possible. Potential GDP allows taking into account the results of the government's economic policy in the field of employment, as it assumes a natural rate of unemployment.

Part of the products produced and not consumed in the country during the year increases the country's stock in the form of national wealth. national wealth characterizes the sum of tangible and intangible results accumulated over the entire period of the country's development on a certain date. For the first time, the indicator of national wealth was calculated by U. Petit in 1664. The National Wealth Index is used to measure the economic potential of a country. The change in national wealth over a certain period of time is described by indicators of the system of national accounts.

To calculate the national wealth in accordance with the recommendations of the UN statistical service, the concepts of assets and liabilities are used. Assets characterize the totality of property rights of institutional units of the economy. Liabilities characterize the debt or obligations to repay their debts. Accordingly, national wealth is the stock of non-financial tangible assets (for example, tasks, equipment, supplies, land, water resources, etc.) and intangible assets (for example, software, historical monuments, art, etc.) that a society has, and the balance of its financial assets (eg gold, special drawing rights, cash, deposits, etc.) and liabilities with other countries at the end of a given period of time.

GDP provides a measure of a country's annual output at market prices. However, the well-being of society also depends on the results of activities, which are difficult to assess on the market. In order to more accurately assess the level of well-being in 1972, two American economists - Nobel Prize winner James Tobin and William Nordhaus - co-author of the Nobel Prize winner Paul Samuelson in writing the world-famous textbook "Economics" - proposed a method for calculating the indicator called net economic wealth (CEB).

The CEB includes a valuation of everything that improves well-being, but is not included in GDP, and subtracts from GDP the value of everything that worsens the quality of life.

NEB \u003d GDP + value of free time (amount of free time for raising children and self-improvement; raising the level of education; improving the level and quality of medical care, etc.) + value of non-market activities (household activities) + hidden incomes (incomes of the shadow economy) - an assessment of negative factors (environmental pollution, overcrowding, morbidity and mortality rates, crime rates, etc.).

consider the manifestations of macroeconomic instability.
As a result of studying topic 7, the student should have the following competencies:

  • know: basic economic concepts of the topic; causes and consequences of inflation, unemployment, economic cycles;
  • own: skills in calculating the unemployment rate and determining the rate of inflation;
  • be able to: independently apply the acquired theoretical knowledge and practical skills for the analysis of economic phenomena in their professional activities.
  • Economic cycles.

1.1. Causes of economic cycles. Types of economic cycles.
1.2. Models of economic cycles and their main phases.

  • employment and unemployment.

2.1.Measurement of the unemployment rate.
2.2. Types of unemployment.
2.3. Okun's law.

  • Inflation.

3.1. Measuring the rate of inflation.
3.2. Relationship between inflation and unemployment. Phillips curve.

BASIC CONCEPTS AND FORMULA

7.1. Business cycles
7.1.1. Causes of economic cycles. Types of economic cycles
Business cycle represents periodic fluctuations in the level of employment, production and inflation.
Causes of economic cycles there may be various phenomena (insufficient consumption, changes in the money supply, technical innovations, etc.). However, all of the above reasons can be reduced to one : discrepancy between aggregate demand(AD) and total supply(AS). Therefore, the cyclical nature of the development of the economy can be explained either by a change in AD with a constant AS, or a change in AS with a constant AD.
Depending on the duration, causes of occurrence and features, there are several types of economic cycles :
1) private business cycles (1-12 years) - cycles of fluctuations in investment activity;
2) cycles of D. Kitchin (3-4 years) - stock cycles;
3) cycles of K. Zhuglyar (7-12 years) - investment cycles;
4) cycles of S. Kuznets (15-25 years old) - building cycles;
5) cycles of N. Kondratiev (45-60 years) - “long waves of economic conjuncture”;
6) cycles of D. Forrester (200 years) - cycles of energy and materials;
7) cycles of E. Toffler (1000-2000 years) - cycles of development of civilizations.

7.1.2. Models of economic cycles and their main phases

There are two-phase and four-phase models of economic cycles.
Two-phase business cycle model includes:

  • an upward phase (rise, expansion phase), which continues from the bottom (the lowest point of the decline) to the peak;
  • a downward phase (phase of recession, recession), which lasts from the peak to the bottom (the lowest point of the recession).

Four-phase business cycle model (Fig. 7.1), first proposed by K. Marx, includes the following consecutive phases:
1st phase - "peak". This is the period of maximum economic activity, overemployment and inflation, as actual GDP is higher than potential GDP (Figure 7.1). Potential GDP represents the volume of production at full employment of resources.
2nd phase - "recession" (or "recession"). Business activity begins to decline, actual GDP reaches potential levels and continues to fall below the trend. This brings the economy to a new phase - the crisis.
3rd phase - “crisis” (or “stagnation”). Actual GDP becomes less than potential. This is a period of underutilization of economic resources, high unemployment.
4th phase - “revival” (or “rise”). The economy gradually begins to recover from the crisis, the actual GDP approaches the potential GDP, and then exceeds it until it reaches its maximum (which again leads to the peak phase).

Rice. 7.1. Four-phase business cycle model

7.2. Employment and unemployment
Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the country's labor force is not involved in the production of goods and services. In Russia, the unemployed include persons who have reached the age of 16, who do not have a job and are looking for it (registered with the employment service), as well as those who are ready to start work.
In the total population of the country, there are category of the working population, which includes people over 16 years of age. In turn, the working-age population is divided into persons included in the labor force and persons not included in the labor force. To the category of persons not included in the labor force, include people who are not employed in social production and do not seek to find work (for example, pensioners, housewives, etc.). Category of persons included in the labor force(economically active population), consists of employed and unemployed.

7.2.1. Measuring the unemployment rate
Unemployment rate(UB) is the ratio of the number of unemployed to the total labor force (employed and unemployed), expressed as a percentage
(1)
Labor force participation rate(LS) is the proportion of the labor force in the adult population.
(2)

7.2.2. Types of unemployment
There are three main types of unemployment: frictional, structural and cyclical.
1. Frictional unemployment associated with finding and waiting for work. The reason for the existence of frictional unemployment is the imperfection of information (information about the availability of vacancies). This unemployment is voluntary and short-term.
2. Structural unemployment due to structural shifts in the economy. When the structure of production changes, the demand for some types of professions decreases or disappears, while for others it increases or resumes, as a result of which the structure of the labor force does not correspond to the structure of jobs. This unemployment is longer and more costly than frictional unemployment.
Frictional and structural unemployment are inevitable, their combination forms natural rate of unemployment (unemployment rate at full employment).
3. Cyclical unemployment is the difference between the actual and natural rate of unemployment. This is unemployment caused by the cyclical contraction of production, its cause is a recession in the economy. The presence of cyclical unemployment is a manifestation of macroeconomic instability and evidence of underemployment of resources.

7.2.3. Okun's Law
The relationship between the lag in the volume of the country's GDP and the deviation of actual unemployment from its natural level was studied by the American economist Arthur Oken.
Okun's Law states: if the actual unemployment rate exceeds the natural rate by 1%, then the gap in GDP is approximately 2.5%. The difference between potential and actual GDP is the relative lag of GDP, and the ratio of this difference to potential GDP is the percentage lag of GDP.

7.3. Inflation
Inflation- a steady upward trend in the general (average) price level - expresses a long-term process of reducing the purchasing power of money.

7.3.1. Measuring the rate of inflation
The main indicator of inflation is level (rate) of inflation ( R.I. ) , calculated as a percentage of the difference between the general price level of the current year (Pt) and the general price level of the previous year (Pt-1) to the price level of the previous year (Pt-1):

Thus, the inflation rate characterizes growth rate of the general price level. As an indicator of the general price level is usually used GDP deflator or consumer price index.
GDP deflator equals nominal GDP divided by real GDP.
If two successive periods of time are given, then the inflation rate for the total period of time is equal to
, (4)
where RI1, RI2 - the inflation rate, expressed in shares in the first and second period of time.
If the number of time intervals is equal to n, and the inflation rate on each of them is equal to RI1, then the inflation rate on the total time interval is equal to
(5)
If the value of RI1 is small, then RI can be calculated approximately
(6)
There is a so-called “rule of 70”, which allows you to approximately determine the number of years required for the price level to double at a constant low level of annual inflation (up to 30%).

7.3.2. Relationship between inflation and unemployment. Phillips curve
The relationship between the inflation rate (π) and the unemployment rate (u) is displayed by the Phillips curve (Fig. 7.2).


Rice. 7.2. Phillips curve in the short and long run
Phillips curve in the short term illustrates the inverse relationship between the inflation rate and the unemployment rate. This shape of the curve means that inflation is high when unemployment is low and low when unemployment is high. In the long run The Phillips curve is a vertical line and is fixed at the rate of natural unemployment.


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