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National economic turnover. Macroeconomics: National Accounting

National economic turnover. Macroeconomics: National Accounting

1.5 Macroeconomic turnover of products, resources and income

A circular flow is a model that depicts the flow of resources and income, as well as the flow of income and expenses, which are exchanged by business entities when interacting in the main markets. The main concept of any circulation model is the budget of an economic (managing) entity, which directly or indirectly reflects all the relationships between its income and expenses.

The circular flow model is the most well-known theoretical model that reflects the functioning of the economy at the macro level. It can be presented in three versions. Before proceeding to consider them, it is necessary to determine what economic entities exist and in what markets they operate, as well as what abstractions are used in it.

Macroeconomics distinguishes four aggregated economic entities, which include:

1) households (families);

2) enterprises (firms);

3) state;

4) the outer (rest) world.

Households are all private households that meet the subsistence needs of families or individuals. Households own privately the factors of production, such as land, capital, labor (labor) and entrepreneurial ability, the sale or rental of which brings them income. Household income is allocated to spending on current consumption and savings.

Enterprises are all organizations and firms of the country that produce and sell goods and services (economic benefits) in order to make a profit. Enterprises buy factors of production from households, sell the goods and services they produce, and invest in the development of production.

The state means all organizations and institutions of the public sector of the economy that produce public goods (public health care, free education, security environment, public order, road construction, national defense, etc.). The state acquires goods and services produced by enterprises for the production of public goods. The production of public goods is covered by taxes paid to the budget by households and enterprises.

The outside world is all foreign economic entities and state institutions interacting with the economic entities of a given country through export-import operations, the exchange of goods, services, national currency rates, etc.

This model considers three aggregated markets interacting in the national economy:

1) the market for factors of production in which economic resources are realized: labor, land, capital;

3) the market of financial assets, where household savings are transferred into investments necessary for the further development of the economy.

The limiting conditions of this model (i.e. the abstractions applied) are that it shows general principles circulation, but not the economic processes occurring within the sectors; assumes that the magnitude of income and expenditure flows are constant; does not consider price changes; does not take into account the problem of depletion of resources (material and labor).

After getting acquainted with the main components involved in the circular flow model, let's move on to its analysis.

The first version of the circuit model is the simple model shown in Fig. 1.1.

Rice. 1.1 A simple business cycle model

The main disadvantages of the simple model are that it:

The role of the state is not reflected;

The role of the outside world is not shown;

It is assumed that households spend all their income on purchasing goods and services, and businesses sell goods immediately after the end of the production process.

The second variant of the circulation model is the model with the participation of the state, shown in Fig. 1.2.

Rice. 1.2. Model of circulation with the participation of the state

In this model, the state influences the circulation of goods and services in society through the implementation of state orders from enterprises, acts as a producer of public goods and provides support to households and the business sector in the form of benefits and subsidies, while at the same time receiving tax revenues from them.

The third version of the circular flow model corresponds to an open economy. It is shown in fig. 1.3.

Rice. 1.3. Model of economic circulation with an element of the external world

Note. Leaks are taxes, savings and spending on imported goods, so called because they do not participate in the cycle of income and expenditure in the country. Injections - investments, government spending and the so-called foreign spending on the purchase of domestic goods. In the equilibrium state of the economy, leakages are equal to injections.

The main conclusion from the model of circular flows is as follows: commodity and money flows freely, provided that the total costs of all economic entities are equal to the total volume of production.

(Materials are given on the basis of: E.A. Maryganova, S.A. Shapiro. Macroeconomics. Express course: tutorial. - M.: KNORUS, 2010. ISBN 978-5-406-00716-7)

2.3. Model of national economic turnover.

As a result of the relationships that develop between macroeconomic entities in the process of production, distribution and consumption of material goods and services, stable cash flows are formed in the economy, which together constitute the national economic turnover of income and expenses.

Circulation of income and expenses in the national economy

RESOURCE MARKET

(factors of production)

Services Payment for services

factors factors

production production

taxes taxes

HOME STATE FIRMS

FARMS

Transfers Subsidies

Sale Payment

state goods

purchases of goods

MARKET OF BENEFITS

Clockwise (solid line) from households through the factor market firms receive services of factors of production (services of labor, capital, land, entrepreneurship). In turn, various tangible and intangible goods come from firms to households through the market of goods: food, cars, different kinds after-sales service, etc. The movement of all these real flows of resources and of course products is paid for by cash flows, the movement of which is counterclockwise shown by the dotted line. Firms pay households for the services of factors of production. For households, these are their incomes, and for firms, these payments represent expenses. Households pay firms for final goods and services. For households these payments are expenses, for firms they are incomes.

This diagram shows the circulation of real goods and cash flows in a closed economy. If, in addition to households and firms, we introduce the state into the scheme, we will see that the state collects taxes from firms and households, while providing transfers and subsidies. In addition, the state purchases services of labor and other factors in the resource market, and various products produced by firms in the goods market.

2.4. Methods for calculating GDP as the most important indicator for measuring the volume of national production.

Three main methods are used to calculate GDP:

· Value added method.

GDP is the monetary value of all final goods and services produced in an economy in a year. This takes into account the annual volume of final goods and services created in the country. For a correct calculation of GDP, it is necessary to take into account all products and services produced in a given year, but without repeated, double counting. That is why the definition of GDP refers to final goods and services. These goods are consumed within households and firms, and do not participate in further production, unlike intermediate goods. If the GDP includes intermediate products used for the production of other goods (flour bought by a bakery to make bread), then the GDP is overestimated (the price of flour will be counted several times).

The value added indicator, which represents the difference between firms' sales of their finished products and purchases of materials, tools, fuels and services from other firms, allows eliminating double counting. Value added is the market price of a firm's output minus the cost of raw materials consumed and materials purchased from suppliers.

By summing the value added produced by all firms in a country, one can determine the GDP, which represents the market value of all goods and services produced.

· The method of calculating GDP by expenditure.

Since GDP is defined as the monetary value of final goods and services produced in a year, it is necessary to sum up all the expenses of economic entities for the acquisition of final products. When calculating GDP based on spending or the flow of benefits (this method is also called the production method), the following quantities are summed:

1. Consumer spending of the population (C).

2. Gross private investment in the national economy (I g).

3. Public procurement of goods and services (G).

4. Net exports (NX), which represents the difference between exports and imports of a given country.

GDP = C + I g + G + NX

· The method of calculating GDP by income (distributive method).

GDP can be represented as the sum of factor incomes (wages, interest, profits, rents), i.e. defined as the sum of remuneration of the owners of factors of production. GDP includes the income of all entities operating within the geographic boundaries of a given country, both residents (citizens residing in the country, except for foreigners who stay in the country for less than a year) and non-residents. GDP also includes indirect and direct taxes on businesses, depreciation, property income and retained earnings. What is a cost for some subjects is income for others.

Combination of two approaches to the calculation of GDP in terms of expenditures and incomes.

Both methods are considered equivalent and should result in the same GDP.

Not all transactions carried out by economic entities for the calculated period (per year) are included in the GDP indicator. Firstly, these are transactions with financial instruments: the purchase and sale of securities - shares, bonds, etc. Financial transactions are not directly related to changes in current real production. Secondly, the sale and purchase of second-hand things and goods that were in use. Their value has been considered previously. Thirdly, private transfers (for example, gifts), in this case it is only a redistribution Money between private economic entities. Fourth, government transfers.

This is just a redistribution of funds between private economic entities. Fourth, government transfers. 3. The role of macroeconomic indicators National accounts indicators widely used in economic theory and statistics are calculated on the basis of GDP. The system of national sets links together the most important economic indicators - the volume of output of goods and ...

In the 5th year, the downward trend in the LD did not continue, as its significant growth up to 3602 was again observed. The trend of a significant increase in macroeconomic indicators in the 5th year reflects the gradual improvement in the economic condition of the country. Table 3 presents the calculation of real GDP and GDP deflator relative to the 1st and previous years. Real...

In nominal and real values. Usually, nominal GDP is used in statistics, but in order to avoid distortions in the analysis of the main macroeconomic indicator, nominal GDP should be adjusted for the price level. 4. National wealth The economic content of the category "national wealth" is multifaceted and is economic activity any...

NNP is GNP minus that part of the created product that is necessary to replace the means of production worn out in the production process (depreciation charges). An important macroeconomic indicator is the national income (NI). From the point of view of resource owners, ND measures their income from participation in production for the current period. ND is defined as the sum of the incomes of all ...

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Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation

Novosibirsk State Agrarian University

Faculty of Economics

Department of Economic Theory and World Economy

Essay on macroeconomics

National economic circulation and national accounting

Completed by: D.O. Karavaeva

student 4105 gr.

Checked by: E.V. Sharavina

Novosibirsk 2014

Introduction

In the middle of the twentieth century, the vast majority of developed and developing countries came to understand the need for state regulation of their economic activities. Regulation can be carried out in a wide variety of forms, which are conditionally divided into administrative, expressed in legislative acts and resolutions of authorities, and economic, involving the use of such levers as taxes, prices, loans, etc. Government intervention can mitigate Negative consequences crisis phenomena, more efficiently and rationally use the available human, natural, material and financial resources.

The System of National Accounts is a modern information system used in almost all countries of the world to describe and analyze the development of a market economy at the macro level: to study economic activity across the country and its regions based on interrelated balance sheets (accounts) that reflect the flow of products and their financial equivalents between economic agents in the course of their various economic transactions.

National accounting is based on the model of economic circulation.

It reflects the functioning national economy in the form of closed flows of goods, services and money moving between macroeconomic entities: the state, business firms, households.

The purpose of the work is to study the national economic turnover and national accounting.

To study the history of the emergence of the SNS and its indicators;

Consider models of the national economic cycle;

To identify the problems of the formation of the Russian SNA.

1. National accounting

1.1 History of the System of National Accounts (SNA)

The terms "system of national accounts" and "system of national accounting" (in a more abbreviated version - "national accounts" and "national accounting" respectively) are synonyms, although the former is currently most often used in the Russian-language professional statistical, economic and social political literature.

The System of National Accounts (SNA) is a system of interconnected macroeconomic indicators, classifications and groupings that characterize all the main economic processes, conditions and results of the reproduction of an economy oriented to market relations. The SNA is a system for organizing information on macroeconomic processes, in this sense it is a national accounting within the country as a whole (in this aspect, the term “national accounting * is more adequate”). The theoretical basis of the considered system of indicators, or accounting system, modern concepts, categories and concepts that explain the mechanism of the functioning of a market economy, therefore the SNA is also called a "macro-statistical model of a market economy".

SNA emerged in a number of developed countries at the end of the 30s of the XX century, and as a systematic work within the framework of official statistics - after the end of World War II (primarily in England, the USA, France, Germany, Scandinavian countries)! The construction of the SNA is the result of combining two directions in macroeconomic calculations: national income statistics and business cycle studies in conjunction with modeling the mechanism for regulating a market economy. The first direction is associated with the names of such major statistician economists as K. Clark, S. Kuznets, A. Marshall. The second is justifiably associated primarily with J. M. Keynes, one of the greatest economists of the 20th century. By the way, according to a number of specialists in the field of macroeconomic analysis, Keynes is the "theoretical father" of national accounting (in the broad sense of the word).

In countries with market economies, the SNA is widely used by the government and territorial authorities in the analysis and in making political and economic decisions. All major aspects of economic and social policy states are reflected in the SNA indicators (economic growth, institutional and sectoral structures of the economy, the welfare of the population and quality of life, inflation, problems of the budget deficit and public debt, increasing foreign economic relations, etc.).

national gross income

1.2 Indicators of the system of national accounts

To determine the state of the economy as a whole, it is necessary to sum up the state of the economies of each firm. The set of macroeconomic indicators is called the system of national accounts.

1. Gross national product (GNP) - the market value of all goods and services intended for final consumption produced by factors of production belonging to a given country during a certain period of time (year).

Gross national product is the main indicator by which the volume of national production is measured.

When calculating GNP, goods and services produced by factors of production owned by a given country are taken into account. This means that GNP includes goods and services produced by firms in a given country abroad.

2. Gross domestic product (GDP) - measures the value of the final product produced in the territory of a given country for a certain period, regardless of whether the factors of production are owned by citizens of this country or owned by foreigners.

Final goods and services are those purchased during the year for final consumption and not used for intermediate consumption.

The value of GNP does not include the value of products produced within the household on household plots for personal consumption.

GNP calculations are carried out on the basis of official statistics, which means that the shadow economy is not taken into account. Distinguish between nominal and real GNP.

Nominal GNP (GDP) measures the value of output in a given period at the prices of that period or in current monetary units.

Nominal GNP varies from year to year for two reasons. Firstly, the physical volume of output of goods is changing, and secondly, market prices are changing. Real GNP (GDP) measures the physical volume of output in the economy in different periods of time by evaluating all goods produced in both periods at the same or at constant prices (comparable, basic). To calculate the real volume of GNP, a base year is chosen.

3. Total social product (SOP). It is the sum of the prices of all goods and services produced in a year. SOP exceeds GDP by the value of imports and intermediate product (IP), which refers to the value of goods and services consumed in the production process of GDP.

4. Gross national disposable income (GNDI).

GNR = GNP + Net transfers from abroad.

Net transfers from abroad are transfers received from the rest of the world (donations, humanitarian aid) minus similar transfers transferred abroad. The GNR is used for final consumption and national savings.

5. Net national product (NNP).

As a measure of gross annual output, GNP has one important drawback: it overstates output by the value of annual depreciation charges and by the amount of indirect taxes. Economists are primarily interested in the amount that production actually added to the welfare of society, while the amount of depreciation deductions accumulated in special funds does not increase the welfare of society. By reducing the value of GNP by the amount of depreciation accrued for the year, one can obtain a net national product (NNP).

NNP \u003d GNP - the cost of depreciation of fixed capital (depreciation charges).

This indicator measures the total annual production of goods and services that a country has produced and consumed in all sectors of its national economy. NNP shows the amount of income of suppliers of economic resources for the land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurial ability provided to them, with the help of which this NNP was created.

6. National income (ND).

The only component that does not reflect the true contribution of economic resources to NNP is indirect taxes.

This means that in order to determine the indicator of the total volume of wages, rent payments and profits, it is necessary to subtract the amount of indirect taxes from NNP. The resulting figure is called "national income".

ND = NNP - Indirect taxes + Subventions.

Indirect taxes include excises, VAT, customs duties.

National income (NI) is the value newly created in a year, characterizing what added production in a given year to the welfare of society. Therefore, when calculating it, unlike GDP, it does not include the amount of depreciation, indirect taxes, and government subsidies.

This is the net "earning income" of society, and this determines the importance of ND as a macroeconomic indicator and its widespread use in comparative analysis.

The national income includes products of the sphere of material production, as well as the cost of products of the service sector. According to the methodology of international statistics, the quantitative difference between the gross domestic product and national income is equal to the cost of depreciation.

7. Personal income (PD).

LD = ND - corporate profits - social insurance contributions - net % + dividends + transfer payments from the state to the population + personal income received in the form of %.

8. Disposable personal income (DPI).

RLD = LD - Personal tax and non-tax payments.

Personal tax and non-tax payments include income tax individuals, on property, fares in transport, utilities. RLD is the funds remaining at the disposal of households after the fulfillment of tax obligations to the state. RLD is used for consumption and savings. Consumption (C) is the most important and largest component of GNP. Savings (S) is defined as income minus consumption. All income can be divided into two groups - income from labor and income from property (non-labour). In addition to the above flow values in macroeconomics, stock indicators are used:

Property (assets) - any source of legal unearned income. Property includes both real assets (for example, capital, land) and financial assets (stocks, bonds and other securities), in addition, there are property rights and intellectual property.

Portfolio of assets - a set of assets owned by an economic entity.

National wealth is the total assets owned by households, firms and the state.

Real (cash) cash balances - a stock of means of payment that an economic entity wants to keep in the form of cash.

9. National wealth (NA) - a set of material and intangible benefits created by the labor of previous and current generations and involved in the process of reproduction of natural resources that society has at a certain point in time; an important macroeconomic indicator that characterizes the economic strength of countries.

2. National economic circuit

2.1 Model of the circulation of income and expenses

The interaction of economic agents with each other in the commodity, resource, financial and currency markets can be considered using the model of the circulation of income and expenses. The model is quite simple at first glance and yet very informative and effective in explaining how the economic system functions.

The circuit model, like all other models, simplifies reality by describing only the most significant processes necessary to understand the essence. economic relations. With a detailed study, we would risk getting a complex, difficult to understand scheme, the theoretical value of which would hardly be higher. In particular, the model does not take into account household spending on the acquisition of real estate and construction. Only those private sector investment decisions that are made by businesses are considered.

Production activities associated with the creation of "new" value are carried out in the model only by the sector of private firms. Households only provide the resources it needs for this, and the state performs the function of redistributing income, producing non-market goods and pursuing economic policy. In reality, however, households can also produce goods and services for sale or own use, without education. legal entity. There are also state-owned enterprises that produce products sold on the market.

In the income model state budget are only tax revenues, and the work of civil servants is paid by the redistribution of income earned in the production of the total product. In the circuit scheme, the wages of this category of workers do not go to households through the resource market, but in the form of payment for services purchased by the state from the private sector at commodity market. In a simple model of the circuit with the participation of the outside world, it is usually not taken into account that households can receive factor income from abroad from the use of resources owned by foreign producers, and factor income of the outside world, earned in the country, is also absent. It also does not take into account the exchange of transfer payments, both at the level of the private sector and at the level of the state, in the form of economic assistance. Thus, the entire income of the national economy can be earned only in the production of the domestic product on the territory of the country. In the extended circuit model, we will abandon this premise. Like all models, the circular model describes an ideal situation: “transparent”, efficiently functioning markets with free pricing, no central bank intervention on foreign exchange market, leading to a change in official foreign exchange reserves, the movement of financial assets and capital across borders not limited by national barriers.

2.2 Circuit models

Two-sector model of circulation. The main actors in virtually any economic system that allows for private ownership of resources and free enterprise are the people who live in it. Needs and desires motivate them to purchase goods and services, and in order to obtain the necessary funds for this, they are forced to somehow participate in the process. social production(or live off the people involved in this production). We can say that it is the household sector and the production sector (firms) that form the basis of the economy. It is quite obvious, therefore, that one should begin to consider the functioning of the entire system with an analysis of the relationship between these two groups of subjects.

At the first stage, we abstract from the state and the outside world and assume that there is only a private sector in the economy. On the one hand, this is practically impossible, therefore, such an assumption makes the model unrealistic, but on the other hand, there is interaction between firms and households without the participation of the state and foreigners. These connections are demonstrated by the two-sector circulation model.

Households own resources but need goods and services to meet their needs. Firms are willing to produce goods and services, but they need resources to do so. People provide their resources to firms to participate in production, firms pay for these resources. The income received by people is used to purchase goods.

Household spending on goods and services that satisfy their needs is called consumer spending, and in the absence of other expenses, it constitutes the revenue of firms from the sale of goods and services. This income received from the sale goes, first of all, to pay for the attracted resources used in production: hired labor, capital, land. By subtracting the cost of resources from revenue, we get the profit of firms, which belongs to their owners. All proceeds from the sale, having completed the circuit, are returned to households. Consequently, the total incomes of economic agents are identically equal to their total expenses in the commodity market, i.e. market value of the product.

However, even for the simplest two-sector model, too many simplifications were made. First, people usually do not spend all their income on consumption. The portion of income not spent on goods and services is saved. Of course, some individuals may have no savings, or even negative savings—living "in debt" by spending more than they have earned. However, the household sector as a whole generally has positive savings. These savings, in fact, are withdrawals from income, since they are not returned in the form of consumer spending to the commodity market, and then - in the form of revenue - to producers of goods and services. They are called "leaks" from the income stream, or "seizures."

In the real economy, some of this money remains in the form of cash, some is deposited in various bank accounts, and some is directed to the purchase of securities. Obviously, in an economy with an active financial sector that enjoys the confidence of the population, the share of cash in savings will be small. The circular flow model assumes that households keep all their savings in banks or use them to purchase securities.

Secondly, in addition to consumer spending on the commodity market, there are also costs of firms. They buy from each other raw materials, semi-finished products, tools, Construction Materials, equipment and other goods, provide services to each other - transport, legal, consulting, security, etc. Part of the costs is immediately included by firms in the cost of their product and returned with the proceeds from the sale. Other costs pay off gradually, sometimes over several years. These are the investment costs of the business. These include, in particular, the costs of building or acquiring real estate and the purchase of equipment by firms.

Thirdly, it is almost unbelievable that people will want to buy exactly as many goods and services as firms have produced and offer for sale. Most likely, the volumes of production and sales will not match. If more goods are produced than bought, firms will accumulate stocks of unsold products. The expenditure of firms to create additional, if not always planned, stocks is another type of investment by firms in production. Exceeding the volume of sales over the output is possible only through the use of past stocks, then their value will be reduced.

The proceeds from which firms can cover their expenses usually come from the sale of the finished product; the production process has already been completed by this point. However, firms often have to pay for resources much earlier, either before or during production. In addition, if all proceeds are distributed among the resource owners, including profit taking by the owners of firms, they simply do not have funds to invest. Much-needed sources of financing for companies are offered by the financial market, which receives household savings.

There are several options for firms to attract savings from the financial market. Typically, producers prefer to borrow money from financial intermediaries, most often commercial banks, and less often resort to issuing securities. In any case, investment is carried out from the savings available in the economy. Unlike saving, which is withdrawn from the income stream by owners, investment increases the total spending on goods and services. Complementing household consumption, they compensate for the lack of spending in the market for goods resulting from household savings. Such expenditures (in this case, investment) are called "injections" into the economy, or "injections".

Thus, the total expenditures of economic agents in the commodity market are formed in a two-sector model from consumer and investment expenditures.

So, the total spending of the private sector is equal to the sum of consumer and investment spending:

The income received by households is distributed between consumption and saving:

All income from production that the household sector receives is equal to total expenditure:

E = Y, or C + I = C + S.

Subtracting consumer spending from the left and right parts of the identity, we get: I = S, or Sum of injections into the economy = Sum of withdrawals from the economy.

A sharp drop in demand in the commodity market will lead to a decline in production and a decrease in firms' demand for resources: unemployment will rise, and the crisis will intensify.

On the other hand, it is household savings that are the main source of investment funds, coming to the disposal of firms indirectly, through financial intermediaries, or directly, through the purchase by people of securities issued by businesses.

Three-sector model of circulation. Now let's consider what changes are taking place in the economic system with the advent of another active participant in it - the state. The circuit model, which reveals the interconnections between the three national economic agents - households, firms and the state - in an economy that is still closed from the outside world, becomes a three-sector one. The influence of the state on the economic system can go in two directions. On the one hand, both in the model and in real life, the state acts as an independent economic agent that consumes goods and services, uses the labor of households, has its own finances, and participates in the creation of aggregate income. On the other hand, its presence and policies in various areas of economic life change the behavior of households and firms and their relationships. Often these directions intersect.

With the advent of the state, the income earned by resource owners in the production of a real product, including the profits of firms, is no longer income that they can completely dispose of. Part of the earned income goes to the state in the form of taxes, while the payers can be both directly producers and households.

Taxes paid by households and businesses reduce the amount of income received from participation in production and disposable income. At the same time, total costs in the commodity market and total output decrease. The negative impact of taxes is partially offset by the reverse flow of government transfers to the private sector. On the other hand, government purchases of goods and services supplement consumer spending by households and investment spending by firms in the commodity market, increasing firms' revenues from the sale of the aggregate product. The overall effect of government intervention depends on the ratio between these flows, i.e. from the state budget balance.

Four-sector model of circulation. The four-sector model of the circulation of income and expenses considers economic ties and interactions between all economic agents, including the outside world, and already gives a fairly holistic view of the functioning of the entire economic system.

Part of the total income spent on paying for foreign goods is withdrawn from the national economy, increasing the flow of "leaks". If the increase in import costs occurs unexpectedly, firms are faced with a drop in demand in the commodity market and the accumulation of stocks of unsold products, which may cause a decrease in production in the future. On the other hand, foreign economic agents, having gained access to the domestic market, buy goods produced in the territory countries.

The lack of funds to pay for imports can be financed by loans provided by the foreign sector or by the sale of assets (securities, real estate, etc.). Since the economy is in need of credit, which the outside world can provide, this is usually accompanied by a rise in interest rates. There is an inflow (import) of capital into the financial market. There are more funds available for investment in domestic production.

With negative net exports, as has already been shown, there is a depreciation of the national currency in relation to the currencies of trading partners or the "world" currency in which international settlements are carried out. Domestic production becomes comparatively cheaper and the country's competitiveness improves somewhat. However, in a real economy, such a situation cannot continue indefinitely (unless the country is the issuer of the same “world” currency). When stocks foreign exchange economic agents will be depleted, and the inflow of capital from abroad will not be enough (it is obvious that sooner or later this will happen), the country's solvency in world markets may be in jeopardy, forcing the state to make drastic adjustments to economic policy. This situation is called a balance of payments crisis.

3. Contemporary Issues formation of the Russian SNA

The use of the SNA is necessary for conducting an effective macroeconomic policy of the state, economic forecasting, and for international comparisons of national income. The process of transition to a market model of management and building a civilized market society is a complex and lengthy process, inextricably linked with the problems of various kinds and in almost all spheres of society.

The first step towards achieving the set goal (the formation of the Russian SNA under market economic methods) should be the development of conceptual, theoretical, methodological and statistical aspects of the structure of the new macroeconomic model, institutional, sectoral and sectoral groupings of the national economy. In general, the main problems of the formation of the SNA in Russia can be reduced to the following:

Conceptual (development of the main provisions and principles for the formation of the Russian analogue of the 1993 UN SNA version; interpretation of production activities and determination of its boundaries;
determination of the cost composition of the product; development of the structure of the state budget, etc.);

Theoretical (strict scientific substantiation of the formation of a system of basic macroeconomic indicators in market conditions and the correspondence of the mechanism of their functioning to the economic structure of the economy);

Institutional (classification of institutional units according to the functional principle);

Methodological (the formation of a modern market forecasting methodology based on the principles of equivalence and interdependence of economics and politics, when the calculation of forecast indicators is based on data from regulatory legal acts that meets the needs of the Russian specifics of managing statistical accounting and forecasting bodies, public authorities, as well as international requirements and standards ; on this basis, the creation of a balance method for describing the economy, adequate market model economics of Russia; development of methodological approaches to the formation of the structure of reporting indicators of social economic development national economy: production, consumption (intermediate and final), distribution and redistribution of income, foreign trade; interpretation of financial flows; classification of income and expenses; definition of the category of savings and others);

Organizational and legal (approval of property rights and distribution of the boundaries of their specific structure; creation of an integrated reporting system based on the State Statistics Committee of Russia, formed on the basis of the mandatory submission of reporting data by the Central Bank of Russia, the Ministry of Finance, the Customs Committee and other services and departments that are holders of reporting information of financial and non-financial the nature of enterprises and organizations that characterizes the development of the national economy of the country as a whole and within the framework of the monetary sector, the sector of government bodies and the external sector of the economy);

Statistical (updating the Unified State Register of Enterprises and Organizations of the State Statistics Committee of Russia (EGRPO); reviewing the procedure and methods for collecting external and internal data sources, their generalization and development of new data sources using new methods that meet the requirements of building a system of national balances).

The conceptual problems of the formation of the SNA in a market economy are reduced to:

1. Determining the boundaries of production activities in the conditions of a market business model;

2. Development of the main conceptual provisions for the further development of the national economy and, in accordance with this, the determination of the composition of the system of the main indicators of the socio-economic development of the national economy;

3. Development of the main principles for the formation of the Russian system of national balances (integrity and balance in the context of the institutional sectors of the economy as a whole for the economy as a whole for the economy; the validity of the calculation of macroeconomic indicators due to the relationship of indicators and instruments and parameters of the state socio-economic policy in the context of all its directions );

4. Development of the basic principles for the functioning of the Russian system of national balances;

5. Determining the main directions for the development of the SNA in accordance with the established option for the development of the national economy in the future;

6. Development of the basic principles for the formation of scenario conditions for the forecast;

7. Development of the basic principles for the formation of a system of macroeconomic indicators in the reporting and forecast periods, operating on the basis of tools and parameters of various areas of state socio-economic policy;

8. Development of basic principles for the formation of short-term, medium-term and long-term forecasts using various areas of state socio-economic policy, their tools and parameters;

9. Compliance of the conceptual provisions of forcing the Russian system of national accounts with the main concepts of the 1993 UN SNA. in its general form, international requirements and standards.

The theoretical basis of the Russian SNA should be a system of views characteristic of the future market economy of Russia, built on the principles of theoretical concepts of the formation of the Russian SNA; the mechanism of its functioning and determination of the boundaries of action. Almost all capitalist states have national accounts, but no country has a system in its pure form. The reason lies in the very nature of the capitalist economy, in which government agencies do not have full access to the economic information of private enterprises.

Problems of a theoretical nature in the Russian economy as a whole, at present, are reduced to the definition and development of an integral and interconnected system of macroeconomic balances, the indicators of which are calculated on the basis of tools and parameters of various areas of the state socio-economic policies enshrined in legal acts. The balance of macroeconomic indicators and state policy parameters is carried out both in institutional sectors of the economy and within the entire economy as a whole, is achieved at each level of balancing, respectively, through the use of end-to-end indicators of the system of balances and through the development of a consolidated balance of resource flows.

Statistical issues. Transitivity of forms of relations (the specifics of forms of ownership and their transformation), their instability, the emergence and functioning of special transitional economic forms, which are a manifestation of the mixture of old and new. One of the important problems associated with the introduction of the SNA into the statistical practice of economic calculations in Russia is the restructuring of the previously existing reporting system and the creation on its basis of a new one adequate to the basic concepts of the general SNA. Analysis is the final stage of any statistical research. Analysis of the development of the economy, as a rule, is carried out in order to identify the main relationships and proportions of social production; the degree of influence of individual factors on the results of economic activity; obtaining theoretical conclusions; formation of expediency and directions for further improvement of the statistical methodology used; formulation of practical conclusions about the main trends in the development of socio-economic processes and their effectiveness.

An analysis of generalizing economic indicators and their interrelationships in dynamics makes it possible to assess the correctness of Russia's ongoing economic policy and take timely measures to correct economic activity and foreign economic relations.

Conclusion

The national product is the result of the functioning of the country's economy, the activities of its economic entities. The process of creation and movement of the national product can be represented as closed flows of goods, services and money moving between economic entities, within a single national economic circuit. The national product in physical form is a set of all goods and services created in a given country for a certain period of time (usually a year), and in monetary form - the total cost of these goods and services.

In most developed and developing countries, the national product is the sum of goods and services produced in all sectors of the economy. It is calculated using the System of National Accounts (SNA).

The system of national accounts is a statistical model of a market economy that reflects the functioning of the national economy in the form of closed flows of goods, services and money moving between macroeconomic entities.

The system of national accounts studies and records the process of creation, distribution and redistribution of the national product and national income in the country. With its help, it is possible to determine macroeconomic indicators of the state of the economy for different periods of time, in order to determine, on the basis of this information, the degree of achievement of the goals of the national economy, develop an economic policy, conduct comparative analysis economic potentials of different countries.

The SNA studies transactions between the subjects of the national economy. Economic entities (agents) of the national economy here include economic units that perform economic transactions with tangible or financial assets: non-financial enterprises; financial institutions and organizations; public institutions providing services that are not the object of sale and purchase; private non-profit organizations; households; overseas (rest of the world).

As a result of the interaction of macroeconomic entities, interrelations are formed between them that determine stable patterns of development of the entire economy. The analysis of these relationships is carried out on the basis of a general model of the circulation of products and incomes.

Bibliographic list

1. Zhuravleva G. P., Alexandrov D. G. Economic theory. Macroeconomics.

2. Sazhina M. A., Chibrikov G. G. Economic theory: a textbook for universities. -- M.: Norma, 2001. 456 p.

3. Tarasevich L. S., Grebennikov P. I. Macroeconomics: textbook. -- 6th ed., corrected. and additional -- M.: Higher education, 2006. 654 p.

4.URL: http://stud24.ru/economics/narodnohozyajstvennyj-krugooborot/27271-82476-page1/html/

5.URL:http://stud24.ru/economics/nacionalnoe-schetovodstvo/183843-536637-page1/html/

6.URL:http://www.grandars.ru/student/ekonomicheskayateoriya/makroekonomicheskiy-krugooborot/html/

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The economic circulation model is a model of an economic system that describes the flows of goods and services that are exchanged by economic entities, balanced by the flows of cash payments.

In the theory of macroeconomics, there are three main models of circulation.

A circular economy model in which only two groups of economic actors participate: households and firms (Figure 2.1).

In this model, there is no state and the outside world, i.e., a closed economic system is assumed, where the income of some economic entities is shown as expenses of other economic entities. For example, firms' expenditures on resources at the same time act as household income, and the flow of consumer spending constitutes firms' income from the sale of finished products. The model assumes that firms' sales are equal to household incomes. The flows of "income-expenditure" and "resources-production" occur simultaneously in opposite directions and are constantly renewed.

In order for this model to be in equilibrium, the following is required:

a) national income must be equal to the cost of its acquisition:

Y = consumer spending + planned investment;

If, in addition to planned investment expenditures, there are unplanned investments, then the economic system goes out of balance;

b) compliance with the identity of investment and savings on financial market:

C + I = C + S or I = S, since the cost of GNP and the income received as a result of its production are equal.

The state participates in the regulation of the economy in three main ways (Fig. 2.2.):

a) collects taxes and makes social payments to certain categories of citizens: those who "still" do not work (for example, scholarships), and those who "already" do not work (pensions, benefits). The state collects taxes from both enterprises and individuals, but the circular flow model assumes that economic entities are divided according to their functional purpose and the owners of firms who pay taxes are in the household sphere. Therefore, households pay taxes by receiving transfers, the difference between them forms net taxes;

b) acts as a buyer in the goods market, where public procurement of goods and services is carried out. State procurements- these are purchases for the construction and maintenance of schools, roads, the army and the state administration apparatus. In addition to the costs in the commodity market, the state incurs costs for the remuneration of civil servants, so these costs are also included in public procurement;

c) has an indirect effect on the economy by regulating the amount of money in the economy. Public spending on procurement and taxes, as a rule, do not match in size. The difference between net taxes and government spending is government savings. If the savings of the state is a positive value, then they constitute a budget surplus; if negative, a budget deficit, which can be financed by the issue of money or bonds.

State savings, like household savings, are directed to the property sector.

Model of circulation with the participation of foreign countries.

The foreign sector is connected to the economic system in three ways:

a) through the import of goods and services;

b) through the export of goods and services;

c) through international and financial organizations.

In a market economy, the expense of one entity is the income of another entity, and vice versa. In this regard, all the budgets of economic entities are interconnected, and in the country's economy there is a circulation of money. From these positions, the circulation is a set of budgets of all economic entities in their interconnection.

The economic cycle can be represented in four ways.

Model of national economic circulation is a model of an economic system that describes the flows of goods and services that are exchanged by economic entities, balanced by the flows of cash payments.

In macroeconomics, there are two types quantitative variables: stocks and flows.

stock- an indicator measured as a quantity at the moment. Flow- a quantity measured as a quantity per unit of time.

For example, stock- property of the consumer, flow- his income and expenses; stock- the number of unemployed, flow- the number of people losing their jobs; stock- accumulated capital in the economy, flow- investment size; stock- state debt, flow- budget deficit.

In macroeconomics, there are three basic circulation patterns.

Circular model in a closed economy, in which only two groups of economic actors participate: households and firms (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1. Model of national economic circulation in a closed economy without the participation of the state

In order for this model to be in equilibrium, the following is required:

national income must be equal to the cost of its acquisition: Y = consumer spending + planned investment. If, in addition to planned investment expenditures, there are unplanned investments, then the economic system goes out of balance;
compliance with the identity of investments and savings in the financial market: C + I = C + S or I = S, since the cost of GNP and the income received as a result of its production are equal.

State participates in the regulation of the economy three main ways (Fig. 2.2):

collects taxes and makes social payments to certain categories of citizens: those who "still" do not work (for example, scholarships), and those who "already" do not work (pensions, benefits). The state collects taxes from both enterprises and individuals, but the circular flow model assumes that economic entities are divided according to their functional purpose and that the owners of firms who pay taxes are in the household sphere. Therefore, households pay taxes by receiving transfers, the difference between them forms net taxes;
acts as a buyer in the goods market, where government purchases of goods and services are carried out. State procurements- these are purchases for the construction and maintenance of schools, roads, the army and the state administration apparatus. In addition to the costs in the commodity market, the state incurs costs for the remuneration of civil servants, so these costs are also included in public procurement;
It has an indirect effect on the economy by regulating the amount of money in the economy. Public spending on procurement and taxes, as a rule, do not match in size. The difference between net taxes and government spending is state savings. If government savings are positive, then they are budget surplus if negative - budget deficit which can be financed by issuing money or bonds.

State savings, like household savings, are directed to the property sector.

The model of circulation with the participation of foreign countries(Fig. 2.3).

The model becomes even more complicated when a foreign sector is introduced into it, which turns a closed system into an open economy. The foreign sector (outside world, abroad) is linked to the economic system three ways:

through the import of goods and services;
through the export of goods and services;
through international and financial organizations.

Real and cash flows are free if the total expenditures of households, firms, government and the outside world are equal to the total output.

The difference between exports and imports is net export, which goes to the goods market, but does not enter the property sector.

If exports do not cover imports, then the difference must be paid by borrowing from foreign financial intermediaries or by selling real or financial assets to foreign buyers. Such operations are called net capital inflow.

Capital inflow- the net amount received through loans from foreign financial intermediaries, as well as through the sale of real or financial assets to foreign buyers.

Capital outflow- the net value of loans issued to foreign borrowers and funds used to purchase real or financial assets from foreign sellers.

The economic cycle can be represented in four ways:

equation;
table (matrix);
diagram (scheme);
account, which is used to build the national accounting system.

The budget will be balanced if the total values of these flows are equal for all economic entities:

Households:

Y=C+T+S.

Y + Z = C + I + G + E.

State:

G = T + (G - T).

Abroad:

Z = E + (Z - E),

Where ( Z-E) is the trade balance.

The main flows of the national economic circulation are presented in the form of diagrams (Fig. 2.1–2.3). In an open economy with government intervention, there are “leaks” from the “income-expenditure” stream and, at the same time, infusions of additional funds in the form of “injections”.

"Leaks" is the income that is not used by households to buy domestically produced products. They act in the form of savings, tax payments and imports ( S+T+Z).

"Injections"- expenses for financing the national product - investments, government purchases, export costs ( I+G+E).

Based on the equality of the national product and national income, we have:

C + I + G + (E - Z) = C + T + S.

After transforming the equation, we get:

I + G + E = S + T + Z,

i.e. the total amount of "injections" is equal to the total amount of "leaks".

The equation of "leaks" and "injections" can be represented as:

I + (G - T) = S + (Z - E),

where S - domestic savings; Z–E is net imports financed by capital inflows.

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