Communication qualities that. Communicative qualities of speech
What is speech?
Speech is the ability to communicate using words, sounds, and other elements of language.
Speech is a historically established form of communication between people through language structures created on the basis of certain rules. The process of speech involves, on the one hand, the formation and formulation of thoughts by language (speech) means, and on the other hand, the perception of language structures and their understanding (language in action).
Depending on the area of public life of a person, the literary language is used, there are several varieties: the language of fiction, colloquial speech, functional styles - journalistic, official business, scientific.
Unlike the literary form, the knowledge of the basic rules of which is necessary for everyone, the linguistic manifestations of non-literary forms are limited, have a narrow scope for expressing thoughts and feelings and are not general, mandatory for all native speakers.
By origin, the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language is divided into original Russian vocabulary(for example: person, obstacle, journey, drive out, worry, handsome, brave etc.) and borrowed(for example: galoshes, dressing gown, bestseller, conformism, mass media, engage, adequate, businessman and etc.).
By the time of fixing certain linguistic means in the lexical composition of the language, modern, outdated and new the words.
Varieties of language
Russian literary language has two forms - oral and written. Each of them has its own specifics and differs in its inner nature: both of these forms of speech express our thoughts, emotions, but the system of means of expression in them is different.
peculiarities oral speech ?
There are up to 50 types of oral speech. The most common - Speaking, oratory, declamatory and scientific. Unlike colloquial speech, all other varieties refer to codified speech, i.e. official speech, "legalized" by the rules of the literary Russian language. Codified speech is heard at evenings and meetings, congresses and conferences, in speeches on radio and television, and in other official settings.
One of the main features of oral speech is that it is always designed for auditory perception, for certain listeners who, to a certain extent, are the interlocutors of the speaker.
Thus, oral speech always depends on the situation and is highly situational and emotional. Emotions express our attitude to what is said, so oral speech can actively help the listener to perceive the content of our statement.
Distinguishes oral speech and inherent in it to one degree or another improvisation. This feature of oral speech is associated with the requirement you just and natural language.
According to the number of participants in the speech, dialog and monologue .
Dialog- a conversation between two or more persons - is one of the most common types of oral speech, the most natural form of verbal communication
monologue speech more complicated than dialogic, both in content and linguistic design, it always implies a high level of language development of the speaker.
4 . Language unit- an element of the language system, indecomposable within a certain level of text division and opposed to other units in the language subsystem corresponding to this level. Can be decomposed into lower level units. the basic structural units of speech are the phrase, word and part of the word. The concept is the unity of essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena reflected in thinking; a thought or a system of thoughts that singles out and generalizes objects of a certain class according to certain general and, in the aggregate, specific features for them. A concept is the result of applying a category to a perception. Hence the concept in its abstractness is opposed to the concreteness of perception. Also, the concept is opposed to the word, which can be interpreted as a sign of the concept. The word (an unambiguous axiomatic designation in vocabulary) is one of the main structural units of the language, which serves to name objects, their qualities and characteristics, their interactions, as well as the naming of imaginary and abstract concepts created by the human imagination.
A culture of speech
Word culture we name the level of development of any economic branch, social and mental sphere of human activity. We are speaking: culture of work, culture of agriculture, culture of behavior, culture of relationships, culture of speech. In the generally accepted sense of culture of speech it implies the level of use of the richness of the language by one or another person, the degree of language proficiency in different communication conditions. How better man knows the language, the more freely he owns its riches, the higher the culture of speech of this person, the greater the influence his speech has on others. For, as the German proverb says, "He who speaks controls people."
What elements make up the culture of speech?
This capacious characteristic breaks down into the following components:
· Correctness, richness, expressiveness, purity. Accuracy. Consistency, accessibility, relevance, effectiveness
The presented qualities of cultural speech are called communicative qualities and are in a strict hierarchical relationship and relationship, therefore, from a linguistic point of view, the term " a culture of speech " has the following two meanings:
First– the culture of speech is the totality and system of its communicative qualities:
a) its signs and properties, the totality and system of which speak of its communicative perfection;
b) a set of human skills and knowledge that ensure the expediency and ease of using the language for the purpose of communication.
Second the meaning of the concept of "culture of speech": this is the doctrine of the totality and system of communicative qualities of speech(field of linguistics).
The subject of the culture of speech: linguistic structure of speech in its communicative impact. In other words: the culture of speech is the ability to use all the possibilities of the language spoken by the speaker
Communicative qualities of cultural speech
1. Communicative qualities of speech: correctness, accuracy, consistency, purity, richness, expressiveness, relevance, communicative expediency, tolerance, assertiveness.
The communicative qualities of cultural speech are divided into three hierarchical levels:
First step, main , basic, –correct speech.
Second step - communicatively expedient speech, which includes seven qualities: and relevance.
Third step, final , final, – efficient speech.
Each section of the language is subject to norms. In the modern Russian literary language, there are spelling, punctuation, orthoepic (phonetic), lexico-phraseological, morphological (word formation and inflection), syntactic, stylistic norms.
So, spelling norms regulate the choice of options for the graphic appearance of the word.
Punctuation rules regulate the choice of punctuation marks and their placement in the text.
Orthoepic norms adjust the choice of acoustic options phonemes or alternating phonemes at each step of the development of speech and in each syllable of individual words.
The orthoepic rules include stress norms , which regulate the choice of placement options and movement of stress (stressed syllable) among non-stressed ones.
Morphological norms include rules word formation and inflections.
Norms of word formation regulate the choice of morphemes, their placement and connection as part of a new word. Norms of inflection regulate the choice of variants of the morphological form of the word or variants of its linkage with others.
Syntactic norms regulate the choice of options for constructing phrases and sentences.
Lexical norms regulate the choice of variants of words and their meanings
Stylistic norms regulate the compliance of the chosen word or syntactic structure with the conditions of communication and the prevailing style of presentation.
You may not have creative, artistic abilities, but in everyday and professional speech practice, the norm is obligatory for everyone who seeks to master the literary language.
The culture of speech cannot be reduced to only correct speech. Next seven qualities – richness, expressiveness, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility and relevance- belong to the second, higher stage of mastering the literary language, which is called , i.e. . speech built according to the purpose of communication(communication).
Correctness of speech
Correctness of speech, by definition S.I. Ozhegov, "the first, lowest, its stage", without which it is impossible to talk about the culture of speech in principle, since the correctness of speech is compliance modern Russian literary language. Speech should be correct, normative always, in any situations of communication. Just as a person who violates the laws of the society in which he lives should not be considered a true citizen of his country, in the same way one should not classify as cultural speech, replete with errors, violations of linguistic rules - the same laws the language we speak (write).
Every nation has its own literary norm of the language , which is characterized by stability and obligation for speakers of this language. TYPES OF LANGUAGE REGULATIONS
In the literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
norms of written and oral forms of speech;
norms of written speech;
oral language norms.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
lexical norms;
grammatical norms;
stylistic norms.
The special rules of writing are:
spelling standards;
punctuation rules.
Applies to spoken language only:
pronunciation standards;
stress norms;
intonation rules.
The norms common to oral and written speech relate to the linguistic content and construction of texts. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Their violation leads to lexical errors. different type(examples of errors from essays of applicants):
incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including the mixing of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym, incorrect choice of a unit semantic field(a bone type of thinking, to analyze the life of writers, the Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
violation of the norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, inveterate foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
the contradiction between the intention of the speaker and the emotional-evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an unbearable contribution to the development of Russia);
the use of anachronisms (Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);
a mixture of linguistic and cultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
incorrect use of phraseological turns (Youth beat out of him with a key; We must bring him to fresh water).
ambiguity (While Oblomov was sleeping, many were preparing for his awakening; Oblomov's only entertainment is Zakhar; Yesenin, preserving traditions, but somehow not so fond of the beautiful female; All actions and relationships between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete).
Spelling rules are the rules for naming words in writing. They include the rules for designating sounds with letters, the rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, the rules for using uppercase (capital) letters and graphic abbreviations.
Punctuation rules define the use of punctuation marks.
Punctuation tools have the following functions:
delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
fixation in the text of the left and right boundaries of the syntactic structure or its element;
combining several syntactic structures into a single whole in the text.
8. 4. Communicative expediency of speech
The qualities of "good" speech are those that determine its communicative expediency. These are accuracy, expressiveness and richness (sometimes purity, clarity and understandability are also referred to as communicative qualities).
The accuracy of speech is associated with the accuracy of word usage, the correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. The most important condition for accuracy is compliance with lexical norms. Speech is accurate if the speaker selects words and constructions that more accurately than others convey the shades of meaning that are essential for this particular statement. For example, if we say “deafening” about a very loud scream, then we are more accurately informing the listener. Or if we choose the appropriate word from the synonymous series (build - erect) for the business style text: "The builders promised to build the building in September, and by October they would complete all the finishing work."
If the speaker cares about providing feedback, causing the listener to have the necessary reaction to the message - intellectual (to make understandable), emotional (to awaken a feeling), volitional (to force to act), then this is evidence of the expressiveness of his speech.
Expressiveness can be created at the level of all language units. In public speech and business communication, specific visual means are often used to make the statement vivid, figurative, emotional.
These are the so-called rhetorical figures - fixed turns of speech, words and expressions in figurative meanings, which are the decoration of the text. They enrich and diversify messages. In rhetoric, figures of thought have traditionally been distinguished (means to highlight a particular thought, which did not change from retelling in other words) and figures of a word (a way to attract attention to a certain place of speech). The figures of the word, in turn, were divided into figures of addition, subtraction, displacement, rethinking of words. The latter are called trails.
The expedient and uncomplicated use of language for the purpose of communication is ensured by
quality of “good” speech: accuracy, purity, logic, expressiveness,
wealth, propriety.
Accuracy is the correspondence between the semantic content of speech and the information that
lies at its core. The accuracy of speech is associated with the accuracy of word usage, with
correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms.
The most important condition for the accuracy of speech is the observance of lexical norms.
Speech is accurate if the speaker selects those words and constructions that
more accurately than others, they convey shades of meaning that are essential specifically for a given
statements.
Purity means the absence of elements alien to the literary language in speech.
(dialect, professional, jargon, etc.)
Logic is an expression in the semantic connections of the components of the speech of connections and
relationships between the parts of the components of thought.
The expressiveness of speech is the quality resulting from
implementation of the expressive possibilities inherent in the language. Expressiveness can
be created by language units of all levels. In addition, there are
specific visual properties of the language (tropes, stylistic figures),
making the statement vivid, figurative, emotional. Expression also creates
the use of winged words, proverbs and sayings.
Wealth is the wide and free use of language units in speech,
to best express information.
Relevance is the use in speech of language units corresponding to
goals, situations, conditions, content of communication.
rich speech
rich speech
There are concepts in the language active and passive dictionary. What is active Passive dictionary suggests contextual understanding language units, but not use
Richness of speech- this and skill set
Under polysemy understand the presence various but to some extent related values among themselves and ; various interpretations Earth the soil, And How land, And How world, And How planet, And How mainland, And How country, state, edge, And How plot, And How substance and etc
Homonyms outfit1 – clothes and outfit2 – order;
homographs chl about pok - clap about to.
homophones : pillar - pillar
Synonyms
Function substitution clarifications turned out glorious day. - Outstanding glorious, fine day.).
Phraseologisms through the sleeves
expressive.
rich speech
rich speech is defined as speech in which the stock of words, phrase patterns, and sentences in the active dictionary is greater than the usual set, and is used for easy and meaningful communication.
There are concepts in the language active and passive dictionary. What is active dictionary? These are lexical units that the speaker (writer) in a given language actively, without difficulty, uses in speech, as opposed to a passive dictionary. This is the human lexicon. Passive dictionary suggests contextual understanding language units, but not use them in normal speech communication.
Richness of speech- this and skill set necessary for the uncomplicated and expedient use of language means that are in the active language reserve of a person.
Under polysemy understand the presence various but to some extent related values among themselves and meanings of the same word; various interpretations the same language model depending on the context.(« Earth» contextually can be interpreted as the soil, And How land, And How world, And How planet, And How mainland, And How country, state, edge, And How plot, And How substance and etc
Homonyms They are different words but have the same sound and spelling. For example, outfit1 – clothes and outfit2 – order;
Words that are the same only in writing but differ in pronunciation are called homographs . Homographs usually have stress on different syllables: chl about pok - clap about to.
Words that are spelled differently but sound the same are called homophones : pillar - pillar
Synonyms- words that are close in meaning, but not identical: nice, good, wonderful Synonyms perform a number of functions in the language, and above all, an expressive-stylistic function, the functions of substitution and clarification.
Stylistic differences of synonyms are the basis of the stylistic diversity of language and speech.
Function substitution makes it possible to avoid unwanted repetition of the same word, allows you to diversify, enliven speech. The most valuable function is clarifications associated with the desire as clearly as possible, with a high degree to accurately express an idea (cf.: turned out glorious day. - Outstanding glorious, fine day.).
Phraseologisms- the doctrine of expressions, turns of speech) - stable, semantically indivisible combinations of words: through the sleeves
Phraseologisms are not created in the process of speech, but are used as they are fixed in the language, therefore, they exclude the replacement of one or another component with a word with a similar meaning. The use of phraseological units gives speech brightness, liveliness, figurativeness, since the very nature of phraseological units, their stylistic coloring enriches speech, serves as an "antidote" to speech clichés.
The variety of lexical means of the Russian language, of course, is not limited to the described units - synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, paronyms, phraseological units. In his reserves and metaphors, and hyperbole, and personifications and other tropes-comparisons. The richness of the language is also created thanks to an extensive system of stylistic figures (some of them are given by us). All these possibilities of the language not only give variety to speech, but also make it capacious, figurative, expressive.
Expressiveness of speech
expressiveness- this is the quality of speech, which, with its properties and features, maintains the attention and interest of listeners (readers). Therefore, speech culture is not only a good knowledge of the language, the ability to use its wealth, but also the possession of the expressive possibilities of speech.
expressiveness- it is first of all imagery speech, its brightness, originality. Figurative speech with its properties affects the consciousness, forms concrete-sensual ideas about reality.
Figurativeness is unthinkable without the richness of speech, for it is achieved by linguistic means, in other words: skillful use of all the richness of the language, fluency in its lexical diversity - homonyms, synonyms, paronyms, antonyms, phraseological units.
Imagery is inherent primarily in written speech, in which the author has the opportunity to improve his text as much as possible in order to most fully convey his feelings, thoughts, intentions. It is a well-chosen, bright word that makes speech bright, unforgettable.
The second, no less important means of speech expressiveness is intonation. Under intonation understand the various shades of the reader's voice, which reflect the semantic and emotional aspects of speech.
The intonation is made up of logical stress, pauses, tempo, strength and pitch, tone. All these elements of intonation are closely interconnected, complement each other, are determined by the content of speech and are determined by the choice of the speaker, i.e. depends entirely on his speech intentions.
Intonation, speech expressiveness is the prerogative of oral speech.
What kind of conscious choice of expressive intonational means can we talk about?
From the standpoint of speech expressiveness, clarity and clarity of pronunciation, good diction, accuracy of stress, voice capabilities, correct breathing- in a word, all those components that have a common name - speech technique.
Speech technique- this is a system of work of the speaker (orator, reader) on his speech apparatus.
So, speech technique, intonational logic sounding speech, emotional-figurative expressiveness(expressiveness) - three interrelated components of intonation, expressive triad , which forms the basis of performing skills, the essence of which is the ability to "draw with intonation".
Let's dwell on the technical side of intonation. breath, voice and diction- components of word formation, i.e. speech apparatus in action.
speech breathing differs from the usual, physiological, involuntary, when inhalation - exhalation - pause rhythmically alternate. Speech breathing is abdominal (diaphragmatic). During speaking (reading), breathing becomes arbitrary, consciously controlled and controlled: a deep breath is followed by a short pause, and then a slow, smooth exhalation, during which the act of speaking (reading) takes place.
Proper breathing is free breathing (devoid of tension), deep, imperceptible, automatically subordinated to the will of the speaker (reader). In this case, it is necessary not to overfill the lungs with air and not to exhale completely. Several training exercises will teach you to take the right breaths and smooth exhalations until the inseparable text is fully pronounced. Such exercises are convenient to carry out when reading proverbs.
The purity of the voice of the speaker (reader) also depends on proper breathing.
Voice- the most delicate and subtle tool that every person should easily and freely own. The voice must be well developed, modulated, loud enough, so it must be protected, exercised, enriched, improved, developed. The best is the voice of medium strength and height, as it is the most mobile and flexible.
Good diction - one of the most important conditions for expressive speech. It enables a clear sound and quick understanding of any word. This gives rise to strict requirements not only for expressive, but also cultural speech in general: dictional purity, clarity, intelligibility, as well as strict adherence to orthoepic norms and rules of literary stress.
means of implementation logical expressiveness of the sounding text are the arrangement of logical stresses, pauses, a change in the tempo of pronouncing speech measures, the play of the voice. To create the appropriate melody of speech, it is necessary to mentally divide it into parts and, within each of these parts, find the logical centers and logic of pronouncing the phrase as a whole.
Good speech - meaningful paused speech. Pauses do live speech natural, clear, expressive. Pauses not only dismember speech, but also unite it: the words between pauses acquire semantic unity.
An important means of logical expressiveness is pace. It slows down or speeds up, due to the stretching or compaction of the time needed to pronounce words and make pauses. The pace of reading depends on the genre of the speech work, on the nature of the depicted pictures, phenomena.
The rise and fall of the voice, the increase and decrease in its volume and strength, the acceleration and deceleration of the tempo creates logical melodic phrase, which in speech score (graphic description of the melodic pattern of speech) is indicated by the corresponding icons, and in writing it is determined by punctuation marks.
Emotional-figurative expressiveness living speech is not limited to comprehensibility, intonation logic. Every word that comes out of a person's mouth, except for will and intention, reveals his state. At the same time, each person expresses his feelings in his own way. In order for the thought to be preserved as clearly as possible during the transmission of a judgment, it is necessary to clearly see in front of us are the images that we want to convey to our audience, with which we strive to captivate our listeners. Only in this way will the audience be able to “see” these images. Otherwise, the words themselves, not illuminated by the internal representation, will slip past the consciousness and imagination of those to whom they are intended, and will become only combinations of sounds denoting concepts, but the meaning of these concepts and their meaning will not be revealed by the addressees. Such images that appear before the mind's eye of a person are usually called in the special literature. in and́ denia.
In and́ denia are needed not only when speaking, but also when reading the text, they must correspond to the meaning of the spoken speech, to the events that we are talking about, because it is impossible to pronounce the text without imagining the reality behind it. Visions should reflect subtext.
The degree of clarity, detail and continuity of visions is not the same. Usually, pictures and images appear in our imagination immediately at the birth of a thought, but they are not so complete and clear. Bright and accurate visions, figurative representations develop gradually, in the process of training, in parallel with the assimilation of the meaning of various phenomena of life, our attitude towards them, as a result of careful reading and work on creative imagination.
Sharing our thoughts, telling our interlocutors about the case, event that excited us, we draw with our voice the behavior of people, pictures of nature, the interior and strive to evoke in the listeners the appropriate visions and a certain assessment of what they saw. At the same time, regardless of whether we look at them or not, they are still in the field of our attention. We always feel their mood, their response, which influence the course of our story, stimulate or inhibit it.
In this way, subtext and ví denia- the fruit of the creative development of the text, as a result of which it becomes extremely understandable, close and exciting. Subtext is conveyed by intonation. The intonation is born in verbal action, that is, the purposeful pronunciation of individual sentences, phrases.
Summing up the description of the expressiveness of speech, this most important communicative speech quality, it must be emphasized that it can be achieved only if certain conditions.
The first one is independence of thought. The second condition is the indifferent attitude of the author to what he speaks and writes about. The third condition is command of speech(intonation) and good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities.
Good knowledge of the language implies the possession of not only such communicative qualities of speech as correctness, richness and expressiveness, but also purity of speech.
Pure speech
Pure speech- speech without words and phrases alien to the literary language and rejected by the norms of morality ( dialectisms, clericalisms, jargonisms, barbarisms, vernacular, vulgarisms etc.).
The development of a person's general and speech culture begins with the eradication of language means from people's speech that destroy its purity. Dialectisms are among such means.
Dialectisms- words, phrases that belong not to the common language of the people, but to one or another local dialect (territorial dialect). So, for central Russia, the use of words such as: let's decide problem (vm. literary decide. Dialect words in official speeches not only do not decorate it, but also give rise to ambiguity of thought, confusion of concepts, entail the difficulty of mutual communication.
In what cases is it acceptable to use dialectisms? First of all in fiction to create realistic images. The use of local words in the works is dictated by artistic expediency. It is also legitimate to use dialectisms in research and other publications in which they become the subject of observation and description. Outside the limits of fiction and special-scientific literature, dialectisms are an undesirable phenomenon.
Another phenomenon that destroys the purity of speech to no lesser extent is barbarisms - unjustified borrowing of foreign vocabulary. We are talking about foreign words used without necessity, for example: we have happening(vm. we have celebration, holiday). The use of foreign words without a sense of proportion, without need, without sufficient reason, spoils Russian speech and harms both common sense and good taste.
In our speech penetrate and clericalism: in business, along the line (along the lines of criticism) Chancellery - these are verbal patterns, stereotypes that are used in a situation of business communication, in the design of business papers, documents, where stable forms of speech are needed that do not require special speech finds, beauty and expressiveness of the language, but, on the contrary, suggest speech automatism, accepted stencils .
Such stamped phrases, getting into a living speech, litter it, depersonalize it, deprive it of naturalness and expressiveness, and interfere with accurately and vividly conveying one's thought. A person whose speech abounds in clericalism seems uninteresting, limited, spiritually poor.
Beyond the literary language are jargon.
jargon- words and set phrases characteristic of the colloquial speech of people united by a common interest, knowledge, social status, age The use of jargon beyond these social groups is a serious speech defect and leads to a violation of the lexical and stylistic norms of the Russian literary language.
It is unacceptable to use in cultural speech and colloquial words.
colloquial words are a kind of national language that does not correspond to the norms of literary word usage (tranway, theirs, no, sho(do), between, helluva lot, local, bake etc.). Vernacular is not limited either territorially or socially. This indicator is not enough educated people. Therefore, in an official setting, colloquial words are unacceptable.
And, of course, pure speech does not allow foul language, among educated people vulgarisms , of course, are condemned, because verbal abuse is not only bad manners, a bad habit, but also humiliation of oneself, disrespect and even an insult to those in whose presence it sounds. Foul language is a sign of philistine rudeness.
Accurate speech
Accurate speech- speech, in which the words strictly correspond to the designated objects, phenomena of reality and the intentions of the speaker (writer).
Accuracy as a communicative quality of speech can be divided into semantic accuracy and intentional accuracy, that is target.
Semantic accuracy there is a strict correspondence between the chosen word, what this word expresses, the object, the phenomenon of reality and the reality that this word names.
Correspondence of the content of speech to the designated object implies knowledge of the generally accepted meaning of the selected words, the meaning behind them, and comprehensive knowledge of the object itself, the phenomenon of real life, the event of reality that is reported.
Intentional Accuracy- strict compliance with the intention of the speaker (writer), the goal that he wants to achieve in communication. Intentional accuracy is determined by the achievement of a result: if the achieved result corresponds to our intentions, aspirations, then this speech is intentionally accurate; if the result of influencing someone through speech does not correspond to our desire, to the plan that we realize with the help of certain words, speech is intentionally inaccurate.
Intentional accuracy is extremely important in terms of achieving the result of communication, etiquette and ethical standards. An inaccurately chosen word that does not correspond to intentions leads to a different than expected result, to misunderstanding, resentment and even hostility. Therefore, intentional accuracy is an indispensable condition for any communication.
The accuracy of speech is an integral part of the general speech culture, but it, as a rule, implies the observance of another communicative quality - consistency.
logical speech
logical speech- speech in which words and phrases in one statement and statements in the whole text do not contradict each other in meaning, the laws of thinking and the logic of relationships between objects and phenomena of the real world.
In order to learn to speak and write logically, one must first learn to think logically, that is, not to violate the conditions of logicality in the statement and the whole text.
So what are these conditions? What requirements of logic should the statement, the text meet?
First, the combination of one word with another should not be contradictory.
Secondly, the correct word order is necessary. In Russian, unlike others, words are not assigned to a specific place in a sentence. We can say: I was at the cinema yesterday; Yesterday I was at the cinema;
Thirdly, the correct choice of functional linking words is important - prepositions, conjunctions, particles, introductory constructions, etc. . :thanks to, at the expense of, which means, first of all, so etc., which ensure the distinctness of the logical connections between the parts of the statement.
Fourthly, the clarity and correctness of the expression by language means of communication of individual statements in the text is obligatory. A common case of violation of speech logic is the incorrect connection of adjacent sentences: The athlete hit the ball with his fist, which the immediately found himself in the net(ball? fist? or maybe an athlete? cf.: Athlete punched ball, and he(which the) immediately ended up in the net. Logic is a communicative component of any good speech and, above all, scientific, which will be discussed in the third section of the book.
Accessible speech
The communicative qualities of speech described above, and above all accuracy and consistency, also imply that it is easily accessible to those to whom it is addressed, because we speak and write to be understood, but we listen and read to understand others.
The accessibility factor is another extremely important point of cultural speech, because the success of communication depends both on how much correct linguistic means a person uses to convey his thoughts, and on how deeply another person can penetrate his intention through a linguistic expression, i.e. e. on how much the ability and ability of the interlocutor (reader) to comprehend the verbalized (embodied in the word) thought is taken into account by the speaker (writer) in the selection of speech means. Therefore, the successful choice of means of expression by the reproducing speech affects the degree of its assimilation by the perceiver (although the picture of the communication process is much more complicated, this will be discussed in the next chapter).
It follows that available such speech, the linguistic structure of which facilitates the recognition by the recipient of the information expressed by it. In other words, accessible speech- this is speech is understandable.
How to make speech accessible?
It is necessary to recall those richest possibilities that are inherent in the Russian language itself - an extensive system of synonymy, polysemy, etc., which allows a person to find and choose the only necessary, correct, understandable word.
However, the ability to express one’s thoughts clearly, understandably, and in an accessible way is given only to those who know in detail the possibilities of the lexical system of their native language, who constantly develop and improve this knowledge. And if a well-chosen word makes speech understandable, then unsuccessfully - it can spoil any speech: mixing synonyms, not distinguishing homonyms, etc. leads not only to inaccurate speech, but also to ambiguity of thought, its inaccessibility.
Of course, accessibility should not be understood as primitiveness. When communicating with a specialist, it is sometimes better to use limited, terminological vocabulary, but well understood by the addressee, than descriptive constructions from common vocabulary to name some special phenomenon.
And, of course, accessibility excludes empty talk - this is, in fact, theft of time.
The requirement for accessibility increases especially when there is direct contact with the audience, that is, in oral speech, the structure and specifics of which entirely depend on the characteristics of this audience.
Appropriate speech
Appropriate speech- speech, the language structure of which is brought into line with the conditions of communication. Under the conditions of communication we mean the place, time, genre and tasks of the communicative process.
Entering into communication - communicating with an interlocutor or speaking to an audience, we not only communicate this or that information, but voluntarily or involuntarily convey our attitude to reality, to the people around us, to those with whom we speak, to whom we write. At the same time, each of us in the process of communication has its own motivational, linguistic, general cultural, ethnic characteristics associated with our spiritual experience, with those value-personal attitudes that are formed in a certain cultural environment, specific cultural conditions. (Recall that the generally accepted definition culture- state of the art…). It should be emphasized that any act of human communication takes place in certain cultural conditions, since a person is “woven” into ethno-cultural life circumstances that are a prerequisite for a speech act and are realized in it. In psycholinguistics, this process is called speech cultural situation , which is a set of linguistic and non-linguistic environments that affect communicants: their relationships, states, emotions, knowledge, beliefs, etc.
The speech cultural situation includes three components:
what is described, what constitutes the content, the topic of the statement;
The one who describes (his experience, knowledge, vision, intellectual level);
The one for whom it is described: with whom, where, why, we speak / write (the identity of the addressee affects the nature of the information).
In a real speech cultural situation, all three components, verbal (verbal) and non-verbal factors, are involved. It evaluates not only what it is said, but how it is said what is the speech behavior of each participant in communication as a whole. Therefore, relevance occupies a special place in its significance among such qualities as richness, expressiveness, purity, accuracy, etc. Relevance regulates the content of each of these qualities in a specific speech cultural situation. Without taking into account the specific conditions of communication, without relying on the appropriateness of speech, one or another communicative quality, for example, accuracy or expressiveness, may lose its need.
An important point is also how our speech will affect the interlocutor - whether it will cause bewilderment, whether it will injure him with rudeness, whether it will humiliate his dignity.
In this sense, the appropriateness of speech is a very important quality in the regulation of speech and social behavior. Relevance is associated with knowledge of the norms of behavior and is determined by this knowledge, which is manifested in the fact that committed or planned speech actions correlate with the generally accepted system of assessments, for example, what can be done and what cannot be done. Knowledge of the norms of behavior - "interlinear communication". It (this knowledge) organizes the relations of the communicants, their speech behavior.
Speech etiquette
The ability to regulate speech and social behavior lies in speech etiquette- an integral part of the speech and behavioral culture of the speaker (writer). To master it, it is important to understand the essence of speech etiquette.
Speech etiquette is a system of set expressions that has developed in language and speech and is used in situations of establishing and maintaining contact. Speech etiquette is inseparable from politeness, which is especially important in an official setting and in relations with strangers. If in communication with relatives and friends there are many ways to convey one's feelings, attitude towards them, then in contact with strangers, from the point of view of speech behavior, politeness implies “non-damaging” by speech (non-insulting), showing signs of attention, showing tact, modesty.
Special expressions that update the polite tone: Kindly... Kindly... Please... Could you...– are impossible without appropriate intonation of the language material and gestures that convey the attitude of the speaker to the addressee and what he is talking about.
In speech etiquette is transmitted social information about the speaker and his addressee, about whether they know each other or not, about the relationship of equality / inequality by age, official position, about their personal relationship (if they know each other), about the setting (official or informal) in which communication takes place, etc. .P. (For example, good health! may belong to an elderly villager or Hi! - testifies to the friendly, close relationship of young people). Speech etiquette is laid down in linguistic signs, and social signals of the type are realized in speech: own - alien, familiar - unfamiliar, distant - close, equal - younger - older in age or position.
Compliance with the rules of etiquette is an unwritten requirement of society and is perceived as social verbal "stroking":
◦ Hello–be healthy.◦ Thanks to–thank you…..
In addition, in the expressions of speech etiquette, social relations of a particular era :
◦ I bow my forehead, I thank you most humbly. I bow most lowly. Your humble servant….
The formulas of verbal communication are fixed in proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions:
◦ How many years, how many winters!, Enjoy your bath!....
Speech etiquette has a bright national colors , which is dictated by the traditions and mentality of the people, and is sometimes incomprehensible to representatives of other peoples or is misunderstood.
Knowledge and skillful choice of the most appropriate etiquette forms and speech expressions constitute the rules (art) for entering into communication and communication in general.
What are etiquette forms communication and modern politeness formulas ?
Speech etiquette covers everything that expresses a friendly attitude towards the interlocutor, which can create a favorable climate for communication. Etiquette forms of communication (official and informal) are: greeting, greeting, apology(as a form of politeness and as an awareness of the inconvenience caused), gratitude, congratulations, wish, sympathy and condolences, approval and compliment, invitation, offer, request, advice and many others. other Written forms of speech etiquette - letters(congratulatory, business), telegrams, addresses etc.
The most common language unit associated with ethical signs is the address to the interlocutor, without which it is impossible to establish contact. With the help of an address, we attract the attention of a person who is nearby, or we choose one (or several) of several present as an interlocutor. The main function of addressing the interlocutor is an appeal, which is combined with a vocative intonation. The second important property of the address is that it not only calls, but also designates the addressee.
Russian speech etiquette does not allow talking about him in the third person in the presence of a person - it provides for naming a third person present during the conversation by name (patronymic).
The ability to situationally correctly use verbal and non-verbal formulas of politeness in one’s speech, to convey one’s thought in accordance with the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners (readers), emotional, moral, aesthetic and other tasks of oral (written) speech - this is the ability apply communicative quality - relevance.
Action speech
The third step in the hierarchical ladder of the communicative qualities of speech is efficiency.
The effectiveness of speech is the third, final stage of speech culture, building on top of the others and completing a strict stepwise, hierarchical sequence of all nine communicative qualities.
Action speech- speech, the linguistic structure of which encourages its recipient to change behavior, external (deed, action) or internal (thought, look, mood).
Any communication implies effectiveness. It is the result that is the criterion for the usefulness of communication. Therefore, the fact of completeness of communication is determined by the effectiveness of speech, that is, a change in behavior (internal, external), the adequacy of perception and understanding by the addressee of the meaning of what was said (written).
Efficiency strengthens or weakens the sum of terms of concepts - correct speech and communicative-appropriate speech and depends not only on what kind means of language and how were applied, but also from being for the expression what information they were used. Ultimately, the choice of the qualities of communicatively expedient speech is determined precisely by its effectiveness and is evaluated from the point of view of the effectiveness of the impact of speech on the interlocutor, the audience. Effective speech does not leave indifferent, encourages action, excites in the listener (reader) his own inner word.
Among the techniques that increase the effectiveness and persuasiveness of oral utterances, special attention should be paid to the means of speech expressiveness, eye and voice contact, the “language of movements”, which make speech vivid, affecting not only the mind, but also the feelings and emotions of listeners.
Find mutual language, to build a genuine dialogue means not only to speak yourself, but also to be able to listen when others speak. This will help to make one's own speech appropriate to the speech cultural situation, will provide an opportunity to better understand the interlocutor, more effectively convey one's thoughts to him and, therefore, come to harmonizing interaction in speech communication.
Lecture 2
Communicative qualities of speech
1.Speech communication
2. Qualities of good speech: relevance, correctness, purity, accuracy, clarity, brevity, richness, expressiveness
1. Communication ( lat. I make common, connect) - purposeful interaction of people. The main means of communication is speech, i.e. the activity itself (speaking, listening, writing, reading) and its result (statement, text).
Speech communication consists of a speech event, speech situation and speech interaction. Speech event refers to speech and communication conditions.
A speech situation is a situation in which an utterance is generated. The components of the speech situation are the time and place of the utterance, as well as the participants in communication (the speaker and the listener). The rules for conducting a conversation and the nature of statements depend on the speech situation.
Speech interaction is the interaction of the speaker and the listener, which is carried out on the basis of knowledge of the subject of speech (reality) and the language that allows information to be transmitted. The center of communicative interaction is a statement that is built on the basis of extralinguistic factors (knowledge of the subject of speech, the object of reality) and the language code.
Building an utterance, taking into account the speech situation and the communicative goal, is the key to successful communication.
Communicative qualities of speech (qualities of good speech)
Communicative qualities of speech (qualities of good speech) are speech properties that ensure optimal communication between the parties, i.e. the relative unity of the intention of the addresser and the perception of the speech work by the addressee. The addresser (author) formulates his intention in speech, the addressee perceives the speech and deciphers the author's intention.
Correctness of speech- a communicative quality that arises on the basis of the correlation of speech and language. The correctness of speech is the correspondence of its linguistic structure to the current language norms: the norms of pronunciation, word formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic and stylistic.
Speech Accuracy- an important communicative quality that ensures understanding of the thoughts of the speaker by the interlocutor. Speech that corresponds to reality (objective accuracy) and the author's intention (conceptual accuracy) can be considered accurate. Speech becomes accurate only when the author of the speech, on the one hand, knows exactly what and what he wants to say, what he wants to achieve with his speech, and on the other hand, based on a conscious understanding of his speech task, he selects from all possible language and speech means, those that allow the most successful solution of this problem.
In the book by O.A. Baeva "Oratory and business communication" is given interesting example, which shows how important speech accuracy is. During the Great Patriotic War The radio operator transmitted the message "The Germans are coming back!" to headquarters. The headquarters realized that the Nazis were retreating. The radio operator used the word "back" in the meaning of "again", as a result of which the Soviet soldiers, left without reinforcements, were defeated.
Mixing paronyms can also lead to a violation of the accuracy of speech. For example, the expression "This method has been tested" has the meaning "This method has been approved." If the speaker uses such a formulation in order to report that this method was used in practice, the accuracy of speech is violated, since the expressed meaning does not correspond to the author's thought.
Logic of speech communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and thinking. Logical speech can be called, which corresponds to the laws of logic.
Law of Identity reads: each thought of the text, when repeated, must have a definite, stable content. Thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself.
The following errors at the level of the logic of concepts are associated with the violation of this law:
Substitution of the concept (full and partial): The language of Sholokhov's heroes is different from all other heroes;
Unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept (Reason - confusion of generic and specific concepts): We read the works and poems of A.S. Pushkin;
Fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts: The students read the ideas of this politician;
Comparison of logically heterogeneous concepts: Looking for a husband. I'm still young. Height is tall, waist is thin. The farm also has a tractor (announcement).
Typical errors at the level of the logic of judgments are the uncertainty of the topic; slipping off the topic (replacement of the subject of presentation, inconsistency of the answer with the question, argument with the thesis, inconsistency of the title with the topic of the text); missing a semantic link ( Rent an apartment with a child).
The consistency and consistency of the text is ensured the law of non-contradiction, the essence of which is that two opposite judgments about the same object, taken in the same relation (the object is characterized from one point of view) at the same time, cannot be true at the same time. One of the statements is false.
The law of contradiction is violated in the sentence This story has been going on for almost a year. It started in 1998. (Publication 2005).
Law of the excluded middle helps to determine which of the opposite propositions is true. The Law of the Excluded Middle is formulated thus : of two opposite judgments about the same subject, taken simultaneously in the same relation, one is necessarily true. There is no third.
The law of sufficient reason is thata true thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven.
The discrepancy between the premise and the consequence is observed in the following text: The forest was quiet. Nearby, an oriole sang a lyrical song in a sonorous voice, flying from tree to tree. Somewhere in the distance, an invisible cuckoo was chirping.
Appropriateness of speech communicative quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of language means to the conditions of communication. The relevance of speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational, aesthetic and other tasks of a written or oral presentation. Appropriateness of speech covers different levels of the language(the use of phrases, grammatical categories and forms, syntactic constructions and entire compositional speech systems).
Distinguish the appropriateness of speech textual and situational. Text relevance lies in the expediency of using one or another speech means in a particular utterance. Speech means should correspond to the genre and functional style of the text. For example, words and expressions of official business style are inappropriate in colloquial speech: Due to the lack of discipline, our class did not go to the cinema. K. Chukovsky, struggling with clericalism, in his book “Living Like Life” gives the following example: The student bends over the crying girl: “What are you crying about?”
situational relevance- the correspondence of the speech to the situation of communication, which is manifested in the construction of the statement, taking into account the interests of the addressee, the level of his education, mood, etc.
Richness of speech- the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and language. The richness of speech refers to the diverse use of language means in speech to achieve the goal of communication. The richness of speech depends on the active and passive vocabulary of a person. Under active vocabulary is understood as a set of words that are used in speech. Under passive vocabulary- a set of words that are understandable to a native speaker, but he does not use them or uses them very rarely, as a rule, in a prepared speech. Words from a passive vocabulary can be converted to an active one through regular use in prepared speech. The richness of speech is achieved by the desire to diversify one's speech, by observing the speech of other people, reading books, etc.
The richness of speech depends on the level of language proficiency and on the content of speech. Intonational richness expressed in oral speech: in a change in the tempo of speech, voice volume, timbre, etc. Intonation allows you to express emotions: there is interrogative, declarative, exclamatory intonation, with the help of intonation, semantic relationships between segments of a sentence are expressed: intonation of clarification, explanation, enumeration, opposition, comparison, etc. Intonation is an important means of logical stress, which is necessary to highlight any piece of text.
Intonation allows you to convey many meanings using the same lexical and grammatical means. For example, the expression "Wonderful!" can sound both enthusiastic and ironic. Intonational richness is closely related to lexical, semantic and syntactic richness.
Lexical wealth manifested in the use of non-repeating language means that carry a semantic load. The lexical richness of speech depends on the vocabulary of the participants in communication. Lexical richness also reflects the informative saturation of the text, i.e. saturation with thoughts, feelings of the author.
Grammatical richness- a variety of morphological and syntactic means that are used in speech.
Semantic richness- a wealth of meanings that can be expressed in speech using linguistic means. Semantic richness is created by connecting words to each other. The basis of semantic richness is the richness of additional emotional, evaluative, stylistic, associative meanings.
The richness of speech is understood not only as a variety of language means, but also as their appropriateness and expediency.
Poverty of speech can manifest itself in the following: 1) inappropriate repetition of the same word in a small text; 2) in the use of close or closely related words (the writer wrote this work for ten years); 3) in the uniformity of syntactic constructions:
The richness of speech allows you to select words depending on the audience. The richness of speech helps to make speech clear, concise, precise.
Clarity of speech
Clarity of speech is a communicative quality of speech that arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and its perception. Clear speech is the meaning of which is understood by the addressee without difficulty. The basis of clarity of speech is accuracy and consistency.
Clarity of speech is such a communicative quality that always depends on the addressee, his erudition, education, etc. What can lead to slurred speech?
Inaccurate word usage can lead to ambiguity ( The cart shakes on the cobblestones of the dirt road. Dirt road - unpaved road, unpaved road), the use of two contradictory words in one sentence ( very pretty; exactly, probably), missing a semantic link ( Rent an apartment with a child).
The cause of ambiguity may also be the use of terms unknown to the addressee. Therefore, in educational and scientific texts, the meaning of terms is given in the main text or in footnotes, a post-text dictionary, etc. In journalism, a descriptive explanation, figurative analogy, and the use of a synonym are possible. Speech practice has developed several ways of explaining words.
The most rational way of interpreting words is considered boolean definition(definition), i.e. definition of the concept through the nearest genus and specific difference. For example, Logic is the science of the laws and forms of correct thinking. First of all, the genus of the concept being defined is named, the answer to the question “what is it?” is given. - the science. Then the signs of the species concept of the same genus are indicated - about the laws and forms of correct thinking.
Common is synonymous way, i.e. explanation using the selection of synonyms or a whole synonymic series: restoration restoration, confrontation - opposition, confrontation, clash. This method allows, through a word familiar to listeners, to reveal the meaning of a new term or concept for them.
In some cases it is advisable to use descriptive way, in which the meaning of the word is conveyed by describing the very object, concept, phenomenon. Often, the speaker puts his understanding of this concept into such an interpretation.
When interpreting a word, it is useful to refer to its origin, etymologies. This allows you to better understand the essence of the words used, their exact meaning, the boundaries of application. No wonder the term "etymology" itself comes from two Greek words: etymon - "true, true" and logos - "meaning". The unmotivated use of jargon, dialectisms, neologisms and obsolete words can also lead to ambiguity of speech. The understanding of these words largely depends on the context (context plays an explanatory role).
B.S. Muchnik identifies the following errors that lead to a violation of the clarity of speech: a shift in logical stress, a misunderstanding of the meaning of a word form, an erroneous semantic connection of words, and an erroneous semantic separation of words.
Logical stress is the intonational emphasis of the word, the meaning of which must be emphasized in the statement. How is logical stress conveyed in writing? used positional method, i.e. moving a word into a stressed position in a sentence. Such a position is the end of the sentence and the position before the comma, bracket, dash.
Logical stress can be transferred in a lexical way: with the help of releasing particles and, indeed, even in position before the word to be highlighted in the sentence ( He didn't even know it); clarifying synonyms (the second of two adjacent synonyms is perceived as stressed: We cannot, we have no right to forget about it. The logical stress is perceived on the second of the two synonyms, because at the time of reading the first synonym, we still do not know what the second will be next); adverbs of measure and degree ( very, extremely, very, completely, absolutely etc.), repetition of the same word ( We, we have to do it) or single-root words ( She ate her stepdaughter) oppositions ( This book is not here, but there).
To convey logical stress in writing, and are used graphic aids: font (italic), acute (accent), exclamation point in brackets, dash (where, according to the rules of punctuation, it should not be: Class - rejoiced - it is not known why). If the listed means are not used to highlight a word in a sentence, then there may be ambiguity in the statement when reading it for the first time ( Davydov's speeches are striking in their logic and clarity of argument. To tell the people the truth, even the most bitter, was the law for Davydov).
Misunderstanding the meaning of the word form can lead to speech ambiguity: "Mother loves daughter"(Is the word "mother" a subject in a sentence or an object?) , "What generates such a choice?"(What are the reasons for such a choice? or What are the consequences of such a choice?).
Very often, when reading a sentence, an erroneous semantic connection is established between words, i.e. connection that does not correspond to the author's intention.
Which sentences contain such errors?
1. In constructions with the allied word "which": We bought flowers for our parents, which we really liked.
2. In constructions with the genitive case: We read the description of the fascist atrocities by Ilya Ehrenburg.
3. In constructions with adverbial turnover: People were evacuated from the hall, fearing the collapse of the ceiling.
4. In constructions with participial revolutions: Dozens of university students educational institutions sent to agricultural work did not arrive at their destination.
5. In sentences with homogeneous members: They wished him to get rid of the disease and long life.
6. In constructions with the allied word "where": Sergei Ivanovich was sitting in a room with a book, which he took from a chest of drawers, where it was cold and uncomfortable.
To eliminate the erroneous semantic connection of words, it is necessary:
§ bring together elements that should be related in meaning;
§ insert a word that is suitable in meaning between the elements of an erroneous semantic connection;
§ replace one of the elements of the erroneous semantic connection with a synonym;
§ divide the sentence at the place where the erroneous semantic connection occurs. Submit two separate proposals.
In addition to the erroneous semantic connection of words, sometimes there is a mistaken semantic separation of words, those. the reader or listener does not combine in meaning the words that were combined in the mind of the writer or speaker: It was cold in the winter quarters, the heat was kept only as long as the stove was heated.(S. Voronin. In the taiga).
Shortness of speech- the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the proportionality of the content of speech to its volume. This communicative quality is violated if the speaker or writer has a poor vocabulary, which leads to unjustified speech repetitions ( There were twenty students. At the same time we saw two), the use of superfluous words in search of the right one. Violation of the brevity of speech may be associated with a lack of thoughts, ignorance of the subject of speech and the desire to speak beautifully at the same time (For example, a student's answer to a question in an exam that is poorly understood).
Expressiveness of speech- this is the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the relationship between speech and aesthetics. The expressiveness of speech is necessary to attract the attention of listeners, readers to the subject of speech.
The expressiveness of speech exists in two varieties: logical and emotional. The first is typical for "strict" styles of speech - official business and scientific, the second - for journalistic, artistic, colloquial speech. Within the second variety, such a quality of speech as figurativeness stands out - the creation of visual-sensory images by means of language and speech. Both logical and emotional expressiveness can be realized in an open and hidden way. Open consists in the use of intonational and lexical means, i.e. external techniques, the hidden method involves special grammatical means - conciseness, placement of material in the text, sentence constructions.
The expressiveness of speech is supported by special language and speech means, which include tropes and figures of speech. Tropes are means of expression based on the transfer of meaning and, as a result, the combination of meanings in the same form. The generally accepted and new meanings are combined, and an image appears - a non-standard, expressive representation of the signified. The most common trails are as follows.
Metaphor- the main trope, which consists in transferring the properties of one object to another according to the principle of their similarity:
personification - verbal representation of an inanimate object in the form of a living one: prices are rising.
Metonymy - the main trope of adjacency, the use of the word in a figurative sense based on the adjacency of concepts: oil conflict instead of conflict over oil.
Synecdoche - a kind of metonymy based on quantitative relations, replacing the name of the whole with the name of the part and vice versa: labor penny saves the ruble.
Hyperbola- a trope based on deliberate exaggeration: The table is bursting with food.
Litotes- a trope consisting in a deliberate understatement: Not a penny left in the treasury.
Irony- a trope in which a word or phrase acquires a meaning opposite to the literal meaning. Irony can be conveyed through intonation, as well as the context in which the statement is used. Irony is often used in the fables of I.A. Krylov: Where, smart, are you wandering, head?(Appeal to the donkey). Irony is a common technique in colloquial speech: Original! You can't imagine better! What a creative approach!
Allegory - allegory, detailed assimilation, developing into a system of hints; from socially recognized allegories, a symbolism is formed that is characteristic of a given society: on the example of fables, images-symbols of diligence, thrift - a bee, power - a lion, etc. have developed.
paraphrase- replacing a word with a descriptive expression: northern capital instead of Petersburg.
If a new name arises as a synonym for an already existing name in the language and figurativeness is the meaning of its creation, then the widespread use of figurative nomination can lead to its negative perception, which is denoted by the term "stamp". For example, expressions have become stamps black gold(oil), people in white coats(doctors), etc.
Figures of speech are techniques based on the juxtaposition of linguistic units in the text, i.e. special ways of constructing sentences. Figures of speech are divided into two types - semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures of speech are formed by the juxtaposition of words, phrases or larger segments of text, interconnected by similarity, contrast, incompatibility, increase or decrease in the intensity of meaning. These include the following figures of speech.
Comparison - differs from a trope (metaphor) in that both compared components are indicated in the comparison: Advertising is like a deal: product information is the product, and the viewer's time is money..
Antithesis- opposition: Strong governor - great rights, weak governor - no rights. The antithesis has good expressive properties and is often used to structure the entire text.
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Communicative qualities of speech- such properties of speech that help organize communication and make it effective. The main communicative qualities of speech are relevance, richness, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility and expressiveness. Each of these qualities is manifested in speech to varying degrees and in various proportions with other properties of speech. Let's consider them all sequentially.
Correctness of speech consists in observing the currently accepted literary norms, reflected in dictionaries, grammar references, spelling and punctuation rules. The grammatical correctness of speech consists of observing the norms of morphology and syntax of the modern Russian literary language and consists in the correct choice of morphological forms of the word and the correct construction of phrases and sentences.
Expressiveness (beauty) of speech- this is a very multifaceted concept, it is a set of features of speech that maintain the attention and interest of listeners. Expressiveness is based on richness, it is achieved by using expressions in speech that avoid routine, unexpected turns.
Accessibility of speech- communicative quality, which consists in the fact that the writer or speaker selects facts, arguments, speech means and builds the text (compositionally, graphically) with maximum consideration of the possibilities of speech perception in a particular audience. Accessibility of speech- this is clarity, intelligibility, unambiguity of speech.
Wealth (variety) of speech is determined by how many language units (words, phraseological units) are in the speaker's vocabulary, created by using the maximum arsenal of means of influence, indicates the speaker's fluency in the capabilities of his native language.
The richness of speech, firstly, is determined by the number of words in the speaker's vocabulary. Ellochka Schukina managed with three dozen interjections, and in Pushkin's dictionary there are more than 21 thousand words. Not everyone can be Pushkin, but everyone should strive to be away from Ellochka. In Lenin's vocabulary there were more than 37 thousand words, 4 thousand words are considered the minimum, an intelligent person should have 7-10 thousand words.
But the richness of speech is not only a large vocabulary. Often we hear the speech of a person with a sufficient vocabulary and erudition, but this does not impress us, and, on the contrary, a person whose lexical arsenal is more than modest can make a great impression on listeners. The richness of speech is created largely through the appropriate use of aphorisms, quotations, proverbs, knowledge of the meanings of a polysemantic word. It is important to constantly take care of expanding your vocabulary, try to use the richness of your native language.
Appropriateness of speech- this is such a selection and organization of language tools that make speech meet the goals and conditions of communication; compliance of the structure of speech with the functional style, topic, communication situation, speech environment, composition of listeners.
Relevance determines the degree of obligation of other qualities of speech. For example, in a situation of friendly, unconstrained communication, a language game is quite natural, which is based on a deliberate and motivated violation of correctness by the goals of the speaker.
Logic of speech- this is the consistency, consistency of the statement. Violation of logic - violation of the order of words in a sentence, the connection of parts of a sentence, intraphrasal and interphrasal communication - leads to a possible inaccuracy in understanding what was said.
Purity of speech- this is the absence in it of superfluous words and words that are alien to the literary language according to moral and ethical criteria. Self-control, attention to one's speech is the most important condition for mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener. This means that the speaker must, in the process of speaking, take care that each phrase and the entire message is correctly understood by the listener. Such understanding can and should be controlled, organized: repetitions, rephrasing of what was said, pauses, slowing down the pace of speech, raising the voice, etc. are important here. Finally, non-verbal means (facial expressions, gestures, pantomime) play an important role in the perception of oral speech. Then the listener will understand what is said adequately.
Speech Accuracy is, firstly, the use of each word in accordance with its meaning, and secondly, the observance of facts.
The accuracy and clarity of speech are interrelated: the accuracy of speech gives it clarity, clarity follows from accuracy, but the speaker must take care of the accuracy of the statement, and the listener evaluates clarity.
The accuracy of speech is one of the main requirements that is imposed primarily on a written text. It is no coincidence that there is a proverb: “what is written with a pen cannot be cut down with an ax.” If gestures, facial expressions, the very situation of communication help us in oral speech, then written speech is devoid of such important “helpers”. In oral speech, the requirement of accuracy is also important, and a careful selection of language means is also necessary. After all, "the word is not a sparrow, it will fly out - you will not catch it."
Practical tasks
Exercise 1.
Read various aphorisms related to appropriateness and give examples of such discrepancies between speech and one or another component of the communicative situation. Consider how irrelevance should be avoided in each case.
It is necessary to say today only what is appropriate today. Put everything else aside and say it at the right time (Horace). |
More often you weigh what and to whom you speak about everything (Horace).
It is easy for the happy to teach the unfortunate (Aeschylus).
A hint is enough from the smart (Terentsy).
Task 2.
Read the beginning of A.P. Chekhov's story "Angry Boy" and rate the speech young man in terms of its stylistic relevance.
Ivan Ivanovich Lapkin, a young man of pleasant appearance, and Anna Semyonovna Zamblitskaya, a young girl with an upturned nose, went down the steep bank and sat down on a bench. The bench stood near the water, between the thick bushes of young willows. Wonderful place! You sat down here, and you are hidden from the whole world - only fish and clown spiders see you, running like lightning through the water. Young people were armed with fishing rods, nets, cans with worms and other fishing accessories. Once seated, they immediately set to fishing.
I am glad that we are finally alone, - began Lapkin, looking around. - I have a lot to tell you, Anna Semyonovna ... A lot ... When I saw you for the first time ... You are biting ... I understood then why I live, I understood where my idol, whom I I must devote my honest working life ... This must be a big peck ... Seeing you, I fell in love for the first time, fell in love passionately! Wait a tug... let it bite better... Tell me, my dear, I conjure you, can I count on - not on reciprocity, no! - I'm not worth it, I don't even dare to think about it - can I count on ... Drag!
Task 3.
Read the examples of folk wisdom given by K.V. Rozhdestvensky in The Theory of Rhetoric and determine what parameters of the communicative situation these proverbs refer to. In what situations can they be appropriately used in your speech? For what purpose?
A deaf person listens to a dumb person speak.
And stupid speech is out of place.
Excessive wisdom is worse than stupidity.
The water swept away the whole mill, and you ask where the chute is.
They drive him out of the village, and he asks to be a headman.
It is better to be silent than to speak badly.
It's better to cry at the right time than to laugh at the wrong time.
Teaching fish to swim.
Task 4.
Find inaccuracies in the following sentences. Determine their cause. Formulate the correct version of the statement.
I won't pour many words.
We have one millionaire in dollars here.
What kind of income do you earn?
With the end of the football match, the number of calls should be activated.
The picture is very clear and understandable. You can already see the end of it.
The Ministry of Internal Affairs put into action the "Interception" plan and armed themselves with ferocious faces.
Sentences are severe - up to mortal life.
Some of them were hunters and took guns with them. The Ukrainian Oke arrived with his relative.
Restrictions have been introduced for fishermen during the spawning season.
Task 5.
Complete the following statements by implementing the speech prediction mechanism.
a) Claudius (Rome, emperor): Do not always say what you know, but ...
b) John Blackie (England, writer): Don't read anything you don't want to remember, and don't memorize anything that...
c) Ya. B. Knyazhnin (playwright, poet, translator): It is read in three ways: the first is to read and not understand; the second is to read and understand what is written; the third is to read and understand...
Compare the statements with your options. What are the reasons for the discrepancies?
a) ... always know what you are saying.
b) ... don't mean to apply.
c) ... even what is not written.
Task 6.
What communicative quality of speech is mentioned in aphorisms?
He who gives advice to the stubborn needs advice himself (Saadi).
And stupid speech is out of place (Proverb).
When the language is not constrained by anything, everyone is constrained (J.-J. Rousseau).
If once you regret that you did not say, then you will regret a hundred times that you did not keep silent (L. N. Tolstoy).
Task 7. Read the interview with actor S. Yursky . What quality of speech does the actor Sergey Yursky talk about in an interview?
- In our vocabulary, periodically replacing each other, there are such catchy words that reflect the state of society at the moment. Let me remind you that some time ago, the speech could not do without the turn “if it’s not a secret” ... “Today, what kind of performance do you have, if not a secret?” - let us suppose. And “What is your name, if not a secret?” - almost absurd. Then the "secret" disappeared, and the word "as if" came to replace it. It perfectly reflected what I, as a director, as a writer, as an actor, was most excited about. It seems to me that our life is very precisely defined by this word. I'll "seem" to visit you tomorrow. And I'll give you a "kind of" paper, we'll "sort of" agree. After all, this is how it is ... - And now there is a "litmus" word?
- Now in the course of "dakane" with a question mark. I read one book yesterday, didn't I? This is brand new, right? The idea is very interesting, right? Listen to the radio, listen to the speech of our communication, in the official speech - everyone “dances”. This interrogative "yes" means that, if you agree, we will continue... - So, the current state of mind with a question mark? - Of course, a person expresses a certain thought and immediately makes it clear that he is not very convinced of it, but wants to be somehow supported in it ...
Task 8. Make up phrases using the words in brackets in the correct case.
To be surprised (results), admiration (talent), pay (apartment), reproach (rudeness), confidence (victory), slow down (development), go (Caucasus, Crimea), get off (bus, trolleybus), pay (travel), manage (branch), manager (branch), pay attention (discipline), according to (order, order).
Task 9. Make up sentences with the words below that require different cases of the dependent word. Indicate semantic and stylistic differences between synonymous words.
Guarantee - guarantee, start - proceed, dress - put on, demand - need, worry - worry, reconcile - reconcile, advantage - superiority, faith - confidence, package - pack, slow down - hinder, justify - establish, rely - base, marvel - be surprised, warn - warn, appreciate - cherish.
Task 10. Correct the errors caused by the violation of the rules of management, record the corrected version
1. He was repeatedly convinced that in a dispute with classmates he was often wrong. 2. A review of the book has been published in the journal. 3. According to the order of the head, an exhibition of ancient books will be organized in the library. 4. At the end of the negotiations, the representatives of the delegations signed a joint statement. 5. The facts, which the author of the letter stated, were fully confirmed during the verification. 6. Students pay attention to notes during lectures. 7. It was his characteristic handwriting. 8. Upon completion of the experiment, scientists will publish an analytical report. 9. Due to its electrical properties, silicon, one of the most common elements in nature, is widely used in radio engineering. 10. We were able to come to this evening the best teachers from all parts of the city.
PRACTICE 9.
Topic. Norms pronunciation, word usage and grammar
Lesson objectives: formation of knowledge about the norms of pronunciation, word usage, grammar, the ability to use them in practical activities.
Questions:
1. What language norms of the literary language exist?
2. What are the characteristic features of language norms?
The concept of the norm.
Language norms (norms of the literary language, literary norms)- these are the rules for using language means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. The language norm is a model, it is how it is customary to speak and write in a given linguistic society in a given era. The norm determines what is right and what is not, it recommends certain language means and modes of expression and prohibits others. For example, you cannot speak l idor, follows - ko R idor , can't pronounce about nit - only ringing and t.
A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:
§ compliance with the structure of the language;
§ mass and regular reproducibility in the process speech activity the majority of speakers;
§ public approval and recognition.
The main sources of the language norm are:
- works of classical writers;
- works contemporary writers, continuing the classical traditions;
- media publications;
- common modern usage;
- linguistic research data.
characteristic features language norms are:
- relative stability;
- prevalence;
- general use;
- general obligation;
- conformity with the use, custom and possibilities of the language system.
Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon ,
vernacular . This allows the literary language perform one of the most important functions - cultural.
Norm types
In the literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
1) norms written and oral forms of speech;
2) norms of written speech;
3) norms of oral speech.
To the standards common to oral and written speech, relate:
- lexical norms;
- grammatical norms;
- stylistic norms.
special rules writing are:
- spelling standards;
- punctuation rules.
Only to oral speech applicable:
- pronunciation standards;
- stress norms;
- intonation rules.
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, of the literary language are associated with correct use words in speech. The word should be used in the meaning that is fixed in the dictionaries of the Russian language. The word as an individual unit, as well as a set of words (or vocabulary, vocabulary) is studied by the section of the science of language - lexicology. Lexicology studies all questions of the origin and formation of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, determines the place of the word in the lexical system of the language and in the system of functional styles.
Lexical errors include destruction of lexical compatibility. The possibility of combining words with each other is far from unlimited. The main condition for lexical compatibility is that the combination of words should not contradict the meaning of the concepts being connected, for example, one can say torrential rain, torrential rainfall but don't speak abundant snow, abundant hail; long, long period but not long, long, long-term; deep autumn, deep night, but not deep spring, deep morning; cause grief, but not joy, pleasure.
Synonyms- these are words that are close or identical in meaning (semantics). For example: red - crimson - scarlet(difference in shades of meaning); ordinary, trivial, habitual(the same meanings, differing in stylistic coloring).
Depending on what features synonyms differ from each other, they are divided into three main groups: 1) ideographic, 2) stylistic, 3) emotionally expressive.
Ideographic synonyms differ in shades of meaning. For example, protector - protector, raw - wet, burn - blaze.
Stylistic synonyms differ in their use in various functional styles of speech. For example, in a pair forbid - forbid the first word is stylistically neutral, the second is bookish. In a synonymous pair spin - spin a stylistically neutral word is opposed to a colloquial one.
Emotionally expressive synonyms express an additional positive or negative assessment of the named phenomena, exaggerating their characteristic features. For example, bad - disgusting, linger - get stuck, clean - white, border - frontier.
Homonyms(from Greek. homonyma- same name) - words that completely or partially coincide in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning. For example, marriage in the meaning of marriage and marriage - spoiled products.
According to their structure, homonyms are root and derivative. For example, words world (no war, agreement) – world (Universe), Wednesday (day of the week) – Wednesday (environment) are root homonyms; adjective combatant formed from a noun system, and combatant, derived from the verb build, are derived homonyms.
Homonymy should be distinguished from polysemy. With ambiguity, one word has several meanings related to each other. The meanings of homonymous words are not related to each other, therefore such words are considered as different.
Along with homonyms, close to them are usually distinguished homophones, homographs and homoforms.
homophones call words different in meaning and spelling, but coinciding in sound. For example, raft - fruit, meadow - bow, brother - brother.
homographs differ in meaning and sound, but are the same in spelling. For example, carnations - carnations, road - road, protein - protein.
homoforms- words that coincide in sound and spelling only in separate grammatical forms. In homoform words related to different parts of speech, there is a single coincidence of two different forms. For example, braid(genitive from noun braid) – braid(short adjective) saw(noun) - saw(verb), my(pronoun) - my(verb).
The phenomenon of paronymy . The greatest difficulty in word usage based on precise knowledge of the lexical meaning is paronyms. They are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning: quorum - forum, inert - bone, face - personality, dress - put on, courtier - yard, long - long and others. Paronymous words are based on a root sign, they have the same morphological root. With paronymy, the discrepancy in the meaning of consonant words is usually so significant that it is impossible to replace one word with another.
Pleonasm, tautology- semantic redundancy of a combination of words, the repetition of the same in other words that do not clarify the meaning. For example, huge colossus, mutually to each other, dimensions.
Passive vocabulary of the Russian language
Language norms, including lexical ones, are a historical phenomenon. Every language is in the process of gradual change, so vocabulary can be active or passive. Belonging to an active or passive stock has a significant impact on its stylistic coloring, and, consequently, on its use in speech. Words that have ceased to be actively used in speech are moving into a group of obsolete words.
historicisms(chain mail, hussar, tax in kind) denote concepts associated with distant epochs, and archaisms (comedian - actor , gold - gold , know - know) call modern things and phenomena, but displaced by other words.
Neologisms- new words or combinations of words that appeared in a certain period in the language and have not yet entered the active vocabulary. Neologisms appear as a result of the need to give a name to new objects and phenomena associated with the development of society. For example, abstractionism, cybernetics, transistor,privatization.
Neologisms are often formed as a result of a new combination of bases already existing in the language with prefixes and suffixes. For example, retraining, pre-election, phone, metro builder.
professional words- these are words that are mainly used in a team united by some kind of production activity, profession. For example, sailors use the words galley, rhea, southwesterly, cockpit, in the speech of miners - slaughter, ledge, tamper and etc.
slang vocabulary is the basis of a special social variety of speech called jargon(from the French jargon) sometimes slang(from English. slang), are words and expressions used by people of certain professions or social strata.
Phraseologism– this is a turnover reproduced in speech, built on the model of coordinating and subordinating phrases, which has a holistic meaning.
Phraseological units are characterized by the phenomena of variance and synonymy. Variation of phraseological units is understood as a phonetic, spelling, morphological and lexical modification of the components of a turnover, which does not lead to a violation of the semantics of a stable phrase (for example, to sit in a galosh - to sit in a galosh, to count off - to count off, hit on the pocket - hit on the pocket).
Grammatical norms are divided into morphological and syntactic.
Word-building norms determine the order of connecting parts of a word, the formation of new words. Word-building norms are the norms for the formation of words with the help of prefix suffixes. For example: journalism (not journalism), mockery (not mockery), slip (do not slip).
Morphology(from Greek. morphe- the form, logos- doctrine) is a grammatical doctrine of the word, which includes the doctrine of the structure of the word, forms of inflection, ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the doctrine of parts of speech and their inherent ways of word formation.
Morphological norms- these are the rules for the use of word forms different parts speech.
Penza State University
Faculty of Law
Department of Philosophy and Social Communications
ESSAY
in the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"
Performed):
student (ka) of group 17YuYu1
Lvova T.S.
Checked:
Art. lecturer at the department FSK
Yusupova E.A.
Penza, 2017
Introduction. 3
1. "Speech" and its features. 5
2. Communicative qualities of business speech. ten
2.1 Functional qualities. ten
2.2 Structural qualities. 23
Conclusion. 28
List of used literature.. 30
Introduction
Communicative norms are focused on ensuring the maximum possible effectiveness of communication in any communicative situation, taking into account all its features. In fact, communicative norms are aimed at regulating the process of communication. They allow structuring its process and realizing a common ethical task - morally competent interaction of communicants. Communicative norms determine the purposefulness and expediency of all communication. They ensure the continuity and success of the communication process. Communication norms combine strategic and tactical elements.
Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of a particular act of communication continue to be one of the most actual problems of the modern Russian language, since outside the analysis of speech works, which is based on clear constant criteria, it is impossible to achieve a higher level of speech proficiency.
Among the various approaches to assessing speech (and its effectiveness in particular), the most productive approach seems to be from the standpoint of analyzing the degree of compliance of speech with the conditions of communication and communicative tasks of speech partners, that is, from the standpoint of communicative expediency. It is this approach that can be implemented when evaluating speech from the standpoint of the communicative qualities of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech are the real properties of its content or formal side. It is the system of these properties that determines the degree of communicative perfection of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech cover all aspects of the text, and their ratio and degree of manifestation in the text depend on the genre and style of the utterance, on the individual characteristics of the communicants. The main communicative qualities of speech: relevance, richness, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility, expressiveness and correctness. Each of these qualities is manifested in speech to varying degrees and in various proportions with other properties of speech.
The purpose of this work is to consider the main communicative qualities of speech.
1. give the concept of speech and its features;
2. consider the main communicative qualities of speech (relevance, richness, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility, expressiveness, correctness).
Speech" and its features
The role of language in the life of every society is enormous, since the emergence and existence of a person and his language are inextricably linked with each other. “Language is intended to serve as a tool for human communication, and is designed to be a naturally acquired and adequate means of exchanging information and accumulating it. Its structure is subordinated to the tasks of communication, which consists in the transmission and reception of thoughts about the objects of reality.
Language is a socially processed historically variable sign system that serves as the main way of communication and representation of different forms of existence, each of which has at least one of two forms of implementation (written or oral).
Speech is the process of using language.
The word "speech" denotes a specific human activity. To characterize "speech", this word in linguistics is used in two main meanings:
Speech is also called the process of speaking (in oral form) or writing (in writing),
And those speech works (utterances, oral and written texts) that are a sound or graphic product (result) of this activity.
Language and speech are interconnected, since speech is language in action. To achieve a high culture of speech, language and speech must be distinguished.
First of all, by the fact that language is a system of signs, and speech is an activity that proceeds as a process and is presented as a product of this activity. And although speech is built in one language or another, this is the most important difference, which, for various reasons, determines others.
Speech is a way to implement all the functions of the language, primarily communicative. Speech arises as a necessary response to certain events of reality (including speech ones), therefore, unlike language, it is intentional and focused on a specific goal.
Speech is material - in oral form it sounds, and in writing it is fixed using appropriate graphic means, sometimes different from the given language, for example, in another graphic system (Latin, Cyrillic, hieroglyphic writing) or using signs, formulas, drawings, etc. .
Speech depends on specific situations, unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is created by a specific person in specific conditions, for a specific person (audience), therefore, it is always specific and unique. At the same time, theoretically, speech can last indefinitely (with and without interruptions). In fact, our whole life from the moment we start speaking until we say the last word is one big speech in which circumstances, the addressee, the subject of speech, form, etc. change, but we continue to speak ( or write).
In this plan, speech unfolds linearly, that is, we pronounce one sentence after another in a certain sequence. The process of oral speech is characterized by the fact that speech proceeds at a certain (sometimes changing) pace, with greater or lesser duration, degree of volume, articulatory clarity, etc. Written speech can also be fast or slow, clear or fuzzy, more or less voluminous etc. That is, the materiality of speech can be illustrated different examples. Language, unlike speech, is considered to be ideal, that is, it exists outside of speech as a whole only in the minds of those who speak this language or learn this language, and also as parts of this whole - in various dictionaries and reference books.
Speech is, as a rule, the activity of one person - speaking or writing, therefore it is a reflection of the various characteristics of this person. Consequently, speech is initially subjective, because the speaker or writer himself selects the content of his speech, reflects his individual consciousness and individual experience in it, while the language in the system of meanings expressed by it fixes the experience of the collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. In addition, speech is always individual, since people never use all the means of the language and are content with only a part of the language means, choosing the most appropriate ones according to their level of knowledge of the language and the conditions of a particular situation. As a result, the meanings of words in speech may differ from those that are strictly defined and fixed in dictionaries. In speech, situations are possible in which words and even individual sentences receive a completely different meaning than in language, for example, with the help of intonation. Speech can also be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his communicative task, attitude towards the interlocutor, sincerity.
Speech is not limited to linguistic means. The composition of speech means also includes those that relate to non-linguistic (non-verbal, or non-verbal): voice, intonation, gestures, facial expressions, posture, position in space, etc.
All these differences between speech and language relate, first of all, to speech as a process of using language, therefore, although with a stretch, they are grounds for opposing them, since in this respect the creation of speech as a process proceeds in many respects in stages and partially coincides with the boundaries of the largest language units: with sentence boundaries. If we talk about speech as a result of this process, that is, as a text, then the description of speech at this level, in principle, cannot have common criteria with the language, since they are completely inapplicable to the language.
Therefore, we can talk about the following types of speech as a result of the process:
Speech can be external (spoken or written) and internal (not voiced or recorded for others). Inner speech is used by us as a means of thinking or speaking internally (speech minus sound), and also as a way of remembering.
Speech-utterance takes place in certain speech genres, for example, writing, speaking, saying goodbye, etc.
The speech-text should be built in accordance with one or another functional style: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial or artistic.
Speech as a text reflects reality and can be considered from the point of view of its truth and falsity (true / partially true / false).
Aesthetic (beautiful / ugly / ugly) and ethical assessments (good / bad), etc. are applicable to the speech-text.
Thus, we see that all the functions of the language are realized in speech. And the language turns out to be the main, but not the only means of its creation. Speech is always the result of the creative activity of an individual, therefore, it is necessary to approach the analysis, evaluation and methods of creating speech in a completely different way than to language. This is especially important when considering speech from the point of view of its culture.
The concept of "culture of speech" is closely connected not only with the laws of the functioning of the language system, but also with the whole variety of speech activity. The culture of speech is characterized, first of all, by the correctness of speech (the scale is right - wrong: you can say that - you can’t say that).
The normative aspect of speech culture regulates mainly the structural and symbolic aspects of speech, but does not address the problems associated with the relationship of speech to consciousness, people's behavior, society and the surrounding reality. This is evidenced by a large number of statements that are diverse in content, which are impeccable from the point of view of linguistic norms, but do not achieve the communicative goal.
S.I. Ozhegov wrote: “A high culture of speech is the ability to correctly, accurately and expressively convey one’s thoughts by means of language. Correct speech is the one in which the norms of the modern literary language are observed ... But the culture of speech consists not only in following the norms of the language. It also lies in the ability to find not only the exact means for expressing one’s thoughts, but also the most intelligible (i.e., the most expressive) and most appropriate (i.e., the most suitable for a given case) and, therefore, stylistically justified.
The communicative aspect of the culture of speech is focused on mastering all the functional styles of the literary language. Depending on the situation, a communicative-competent person should be able to use expressive colloquial speech, formulate his thoughts using the means of official business and scientific styles, competently use the figurative and expressive riches of the Russian language.
An important quality of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech is communicative expediency - the appropriate use of language means in accordance with the communicative situation. The culture of speech helps to form a conscious attitude to the selection of language means in the process of communication.
Communicative qualities of business speech
The communicative qualities of speech are those properties of speech that help organize communication and make it effective.
The word "communication" means the transfer of information from the speaker to the listener. In order for the latter to correctly perceive speech and understand it, it is necessary to determine what properties the speaker's remarks should have. There are special qualities that have the best effect on the listener.
Key communication skills include:
1. speech accuracy;
2. logic of speech;
3. completeness of speech;
4. purity of speech;
5. expressiveness of speech;
6. relevance of speech;
7. wealth of speech;
8. availability of speech;
9. correctness of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech from the point of view of the structurally functional approach are in relation to interrelation and interdependence: thus, accuracy is based on the correctness of speech, accuracy, in turn, predetermines the clarity and logic of speech, its accessibility and expressiveness. (Attachment 1)
Functional qualities
Appropriateness of speech
Appropriate is the speech that corresponds to all the components of the communicative situation. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational and aesthetic tasks of oral or written speech.
In this regard, relevance is a communicative quality that is transitional from ethical and communicative norms to speech norms, in relation to which relevance is distinguished in a broad and narrow sense.
Relevance in a broad sense reflects the compliance of speech with ethical and communicative norms, or situational relevance (correspondence to the situation as a whole).
Relevance in the narrow sense implies speech (text) relevance, that is, an assessment of the appropriateness of using one or another speech means.
Both types of the appropriateness of speech are determined primarily by ethical and communicative norms, and are manifested in speech.
Relevance is a basic quality for the culture of speech, as it largely determines its success. The difference between relevance and other communicative qualities of speech lies in the fact that, in fact, it depends on the assessment of the relevance or inappropriateness of speech whether the speech itself will take place, since this quality of speech is laid down at the stage of predicting the speech activity itself from the point of view of how much this or that situation favorable for achieving certain goals of communication.
Evaluation of the results of speech in terms of relevance is also multifaceted. This is an assessment of the appropriateness for each of the levels of speech in the process of its creation, this is also a delayed assessment of the appropriateness of a particular statement or its fragment.
Thus, relevance is a tool for assessing speech in relation to the situation of communication and text, both from the point of view of ethical and communicative norms, and from the point of view of the justification for using certain speech components in it.
Relevance is more closely related to all components of the communication situation: it depends on the participants in communication, and on its goals, and on the subject of speech, and on external and internal conditions of communication.
First of all, with respect to a specific communication situation, the motives and goals of each of the participants are assessed as achievable within the framework of this communication situation or unattainable. And if, as a result of such an analysis of the situation, the communicants decide that it is better to abstain from the intended communication, then this will be a consequence of the fact that they found speech inappropriate in this situation.
Speech can be appropriate or inappropriate in someone's mouth. According to Knyazeva O.Yu., a person should have the right to speak.
This right in this or that situation is given formally - in accordance with a certain situational speech role (for example, it is inappropriate for a student who has not passed the test to ask the teacher about the possibility of retaking in the following form: “When will we meet?”). And sometimes this right to speech is determined by the nature of his interests and knowledge or the moral character of a person. It is inappropriate to give advice to someone if the adviser himself is incompetent or insufficiently competent in this.
From the point of view of the focus of speech on the addressee, it is also important, first of all, to talk about the compliance of speech with ethical norms and norms of speech etiquette, take into account the ratio of situational speech roles and individual characteristics of communicants.
It is believed that it is easiest to understand what is appropriate or inappropriate in a given situation, in terms of content. A classic example of the need to observe the situational relevance of speech is the rule not to talk about the rope in the hanged man's house. This rule is primarily of an ethical nature, and the meaningful relevance/irrelevance of speech itself is much broader: it can be determined both in relation to the addressee and the addresser, as well as the whole situation as a whole, since they are very closely interconnected.
Thus, the degree of relevance of speech in relation to the participants in communication is determined to a greater extent by their ethical and communicative culture.
Text relevance is included as an integral part of the situational. It distinguishes between stylistic relevance (correspondence of the use of linguistic means to one or another functional style) and stylistic (correspondence of speech means, the style of a given author and a specific text). At the same time, stylistic relevance is assessed at the level of both the sentence and the text by those means that determine whether the text belongs to a particular style: lexical, phonetic-intonational, morphological, syntactic, etc. Stylistic relevance is assessed mainly at the sentence level (using specific speech means).
Speech Accuracy
The accuracy of speech is its unconditional dignity, an indicator of the speech skill of its author. The accuracy of speech is a necessary condition for its adequate and complete understanding, and hence the effectiveness of speech communication in general. Speech is called exact if the meanings of words and phrases used in it are fully correlated with the semantic and subject aspects of speech.
The concept of the accuracy of speech includes two aspects: the accuracy of the reflection of reality and the accuracy of the verbal expression of thought. The first aspect is related to the presence / absence of factual errors in a speech statement: it is necessary to speak about what you know well. The second aspect may be related to the lack of specificity in the statement: Somebody somewhere somehow there... or a mixture of paronyms: chief - capital, seconded - travel, critical - critical.
The accuracy of speech primarily characterizes its author, reflects the level of his thinking. In addition, accuracy makes it possible to judge whether reality is correctly reflected in speech, that is, those facts, events, phenomena that are spoken about (or are silent) in speech. This side of accuracy correlates with the truthfulness of speech, therefore, it characterizes the speaker or writer from ethical positions. And the third component of the accuracy with which the author is characterized in speech is his skill - the level of speech proficiency, which is manifested in the degree of success of the means he used.
Highlighting the most stringent requirements for the accuracy of speech in a scientific style does not mean that accuracy is less important in other styles - it manifests itself differently, since it reflects not so much terminology as life realities and concepts.
In this regard, two main types of accuracy are distinguished: conceptual accuracy (and terminological accuracy close to it) and object accuracy (which is close to actual accuracy). These two basic types of accuracy differ primarily in the ratio to which they correspond.
Conceptual accuracy is distinguished by the "speech-thinking" ratio, and objective accuracy - by the "speech-reality" ratio.
To achieve the linguistic and speech accuracy of speech, it is necessary to observe certain conditions:
1) to know the subject of speech - an aspect of general speech culture;
2) know the language, its system, the opportunities that it provides (especially - know the lexical system);
3) be able to correlate knowledge of the subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a particular act of communication.
Accurate word usage is achieved primarily through the following speech skills associated with linguistic means:
The ability to choose the right word from the synonymic series;
The ability to avoid speech inaccuracies due to inattention to the form of expression;
The ability to distinguish between single-root words;
The ability to distinguish between paronyms;
Ability to use passive vocabulary.
So, the accuracy of speech is one of the main advantages of speech, the basis of its logic. At the same time, accuracy is a multifaceted quality. And conscious purposeful deviations from it are based on the observance of one of the main requirements of the culture of speech - the desire for expediency in the use of all means.
Logic of speech
The logicality of speech is the quality of speech, which must necessarily be inherent in it, and if logic is observed in everything, then it becomes one of the most important virtues of speech.
The main definitions of the logic of speech emphasize that speech can be called logical if it complies with the laws of logic.
When assessing the logic of speech, it is necessary to use a multi-level approach. It is important to note that, first of all, the logic of speech must correspond to the logic of communication (strategy and tactics of communication). The logicality of the text (its structure, first of all) should make it as easy as possible for its perception by the listener or reader (if this does not contradict communication purposes the author of the speech).
The logicality of speech requires the ability to think correctly and, no less important, to convey one's thoughts correctly and thereby evoke a planned reaction in listeners (readers).
To achieve the logicality of speech, its author (especially in oral speech) needs not only to be aware of his thoughts, but also to streamline them, check their truth and consistency, and then build a plan of the whole speech in some specific order in which these thoughts will be presented ( taking into account the characteristics of all components of the communication situation).
Thus, the culture of speech understands logicality mainly as consistency, structural correctness and harmony, as well as the coherence of the statement, that is, what makes it easier for the listener or reader to easily understand each sentence and the text as a whole.
The main criterion for assessing the degree of consistency of speech is consistency, consistency and purposefulness in the presentation of information. Logic is a mandatory quality of speech in any genre, but logicality is especially important in scientific and official business speech.
To achieve the logicality of speech, it is necessary to observe the laws of logic, because the law of thinking, or the logical law, is a necessary, essential connection of thoughts in the process of reasoning.
Among the many logical laws, logic identifies four main ones that express the fundamental properties of logical thinking - its certainty, consistency, consistency and validity. These are the laws of identity, non-contradiction, excluded middle and sufficient reason.
The law of identity says: every thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself, that is, any thought in the process of reasoning must have a certain stable content so that the concept does not change.
The law of non-contradiction is as follows: two judgments incompatible with each other cannot be true at the same time; at least one of them must be false.
The Law of the Excluded Middle (it works only with regard to judgments that contradict each other) assumes that: two contradictory judgments cannot be false at the same time, one of them must be true.
The Law of Sufficient Reason states that any thought is recognized as true if it has a sufficient reason. A sufficient basis for thoughts can be personal experience or another, already tested and established thought (fact, etc.), from which the truth of this thought necessarily follows.
The main language means of expressing logical relationships and connections is the syntax of the Russian language. It reflects the main types of relationships between objects and concepts: generic, causal, temporal, spatial, etc.
The absence or violation of logical connections in the structure of the sentence and the text leads to the appearance of logical errors, and is also sometimes used as one or another artistic device.
Basic logical errors:
1. Approval of mutually exclusive concepts. For example: " Twenty years ago". (But the same principle is used intentionally in the basis of the artistic technique of oxymoron: “ Living Dead», « Dead Souls" etc.)
2. Displacement of the presentation plan. For example, " It is difficult to assume that some of the adults have not heard about the dangers of smoking - everyone reads newspapers, watches TV, listens to the radio, although this is not considered normal". (Intentional use to ridicule such errors in the saying " Started for health - finished for peace»)
3. Comparison (opposition) of logically heterogeneous concepts. For example: " Two students walked - one in a coat, the other to the institute». « We wanted the best, but it turned out as always". (The same error is used in the saying " Elderberry in the garden, and uncle in Kyiv»)
4. Incorrect establishment of causal relationships. For example: " Bus driver Makov stripped of award for traffic safety and service culture". (Intentional use in a saying to ridicule such errors: " Born before his father and grazed his grandfather's herd».)
5. Wrong word order. For example: " After the service of Nicholas I, the concept of freedom receives a philosophical beginning»..
6. Violation of logical connections between parts of the sentence.
For example: " Oblomov gets tired quickly, likes to sleep, but loves his homeland».
A logical text should be, first of all, structurally organized, and the image of this structure should be common for the author of the text and its addressee.
Accordingly, the basic conditions for consistency at the level of the text imply the observance of structural unity and integrity, therefore:
1. The text should have a thoughtful, strictly organized structure.
2. The text should clearly express the connection of sentences, while the logic of speech should reflect the logic of thought.
3. The text should indicate the transitions from one thought to another.
4. Each new thought must be marked, for this the text must be correctly divided into parts (into paragraphs, paragraphs, chapters, etc.).
5. The volume of sentences in the text should be adequate to their content.
Logic does not exclude the game of the mind, which is embodied in a language game - a joke, a paradox, a play on words, etc. This is wit, without which a truly good speech of a truly cultured person is unthinkable and which manifests itself in any genre and style. The highest manifestation of logic in rhetorical terms - the creation of a paradox - is evidence of a virtuoso mastery of the logic of reflection and the logic of presentation.
From a formal point of view, a paradox (Greek paradox - “unexpected”) is a violation of classical logic. Many dictionaries in explaining the meaning of the word "paradox" note this, but the most interesting and correct interpretation of this word was given by V. I. Dal:
"A paradox is a strange opinion, at first glance wild, puzzled, contrary to the general."
So, logicality as a communicative quality provides a correct understanding of the meaning of speech both at the level of the sentence and at the level of the text (microtext). Logic, as it is quite obvious, is closely interconnected with other qualities of speech, such as accuracy, accessibility, correctness, richness, expressiveness, etc.
Accessibility of speech
The communicative quality of speech, which depends entirely on the characteristics of the communication situation, and specifically: on the addressee, is accessibility. This is not a linguistic, but only a speech quality, since words are neutral in the language, they cannot be assessed in terms of their accessibility and comprehensibility for someone outside the situation, outside of speech. Accessibility is one of the most communicative among other communicative qualities of speech, since it is entirely focused on a dialogue with the addressee: accessibility implies the obligatory activity of the listener in the perception, processing, decoding and recoding of what is heard or read.
Accessibility implies such a construction of speech, in which the level of complexity of speech, both in terms of terminology, content, and structurally, corresponds to the level of understanding of the addressee. In fact, this is a requirement to use in speech only those speech means that the addressee is able to perceive, recognize, understand and to which he is able to respond. Accessibility implies the obligatory response of the addressee as a confirmation of the degree of comprehensibility of what is heard or read.
At the same time, accessibility is not so much a quality as a dignity of speech, since accessibility appears to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, the criteria for its evaluation are: more accessible / less accessible / inaccessible.
Thus, accessibility is regarded as a virtue of speech only if the necessary (with respect to all components of a given communication situation) level of speech complexity is observed.
In relation to the culture of speech, accessibility is:
Firstly, the comprehensibility to the addressee (recognizability) of all or the vast majority of the words and expressions used. In this regard, the problem of understanding foreign vocabulary or terminology is most often considered.
Secondly, accessibility presupposes correlation with the concept not of the word, but of the meaning behind the word or expression.
Thirdly, it is important that with a general understanding of the meanings of words, the accessibility of the meaning of the statement as a whole arises. And if in the first two cases, in order to achieve understanding, it is often enough to find out the meaning of a word from a dictionary (or in specialized literature), or (in the second case) to find out its meaning from someone who owns this concept, then the availability of the meaning of the statement as a whole requires the addressee to a certain level of knowledge about the subject of speech.
Language accessibility should contribute to communicative accessibility, but language often creates corresponding barriers to understanding. These include:
Another language in the literal sense of the word (a foreign language unfamiliar to the addressee or a separate word (expression)) - barbarisms;
Words of limited areas of use (professionalisms, terms of dialectisms, jargon, etc.);
Words (expressions) from passive vocabulary, obsolete words, etc.
There are speech means that can make it difficult to understand and lead to inaccessibility. For example, the genre and style of utterance, individual manner of speech: not everyone may have access to a scientific or official business style of speech.
To achieve the availability of speech, it is important to be able to choose from all your speech baggage those means that will best meet the level of the addressee and take into account all the components of the communication situation.
It follows from the above that the degree of accessibility of speech will depend on the goal: how much we strive to be understood and on how correctly we imagine our community with the addressee.
Expressiveness of speech
Such speech is called expressive, in which the expression of one's attitude to the subject and / or form of speech corresponds to the communicative situation, and the speech as a whole is assessed as successful and effective. The main condition for expressiveness is that the author of the speech has his own feelings, thoughts, his own position, his own style. Expressiveness usually implies originality, originality, surprise, therefore expressive speech is always new, “fresh”, creative. This is how it is able to arouse interest and approval among those to whom it is intended.
The degree of expressiveness, the means to achieve the desired effect, depend not only on the individuality of the author and the characteristics of the addressee of the speech, but also on the situation of communication, which dictates the choice of style and genre of the utterance.
The difference between expressiveness and other virtues of speech lies primarily in the fact that it is the only quality that only the entire text can possess. At the same time, expressiveness is always the dignity of speech, and not just its quality.
In addition, expressiveness is the dignity of speech, primarily in the communicative aspect, since it evaluates the impression made by the text on specific listeners or readers in specific communication conditions. Consequently, the conclusion about the expressiveness / inexpressiveness of the text is made only by the addressee.
Expressiveness also performs a specific role in relation to other qualities of speech: aesthetic. And the richness, accuracy, consistency, accessibility, correctness of speech as its communicative qualities are auxiliary means of expressiveness in this regard.
Expressiveness arises when the author realizes himself as an individual, therefore expressiveness is closely related to its manifestation in speech. Expressiveness satisfies the creative needs of a person, personality, that is, the need for creativity. Moreover, both the speaker (writer) and the listener (reader). And everyone does it because of their abilities and capabilities.
In addition, expressiveness implies a desire to express something, a need for it. And this entails an inevitable increased need for communication. The stronger this need, the more intense communication should proceed. Consequently, expressiveness is always an active search for a response.
To achieve expressiveness, it is important that those speech signals that are created thanks to speech creativity are not only positively evaluated by the addressee, but also give rise to an adequate response to the intended one.
Expressiveness is achieved when in the process of speech creativity the individuality of the author of the speech is expediently expressed, when this manifestation of the author's personality is aimed at obtaining the desired response from the addressee, when the means that penetrate through his selective perception are guessed.
Expressive means are often associated only with figurative means and with emotionality. In fact, any speech means can become a means of expression. At the same time, in order to evaluate an utterance as expressive, it is important that all these means obey, first of all, ethical and communicative norms, which, in turn, dictate the requirement for the selection of means, taking into account the genre and style of the utterance, its oral or written form, etc.
In the first place in terms of importance in creating an expressive effect, the individuality of the author of the speech comes out (provided that he has something to express). One of the most common tips for speakers is based on this: “pass information through yourself”, that is, develop a subjective-evaluative attitude towards the subject of speech. The means of expression can be all means of language and speech (if they correspond to the communicative goals of the author of the speech). But most often, expressive means are used as means of expressiveness, since expressiveness is based on the expression of a subjective-evaluative attitude to the subject of speech. The subjective-evaluative attitude can be based on both rational and emotional evaluation. It can have open (expressive) and hidden (impressive) forms of expression.
People around us largely judge us by the way we speak. According to our speech, our interlocutors conclude who we are, since speech, regardless of the will of the speaker, creates his portrait, reveals the personality of a person. Therefore, the culture of speech is inseparable from the general culture. A person's speech is a kind of passport that accurately indicates in what environment the speaker grew up and communicates, what his cultural level is, without a culture of speech one cannot speak of either intelligence or spirituality. The well-known teacher Sukhomlinsky believed that "the speech culture of a person is a mirror of his spiritual life." Indeed, our speech is our calling card. A person's speech can tell a lot about him.
Often the speaker cannot competently and clearly express his thought, explain something, have such an impact on his listeners that he himself aspires to. In this case, everyone understands that this person simply does not own the norms of speech and is not familiar with its communicative qualities.
The communicative qualities of good speech are a system of guidelines that helps to correct speech, make it better. These qualities are called communicative, as they should improve communication. The following communicative qualities of speech are distinguished: correctness, accessibility, accuracy, purity, consistency, relevance, richness, expressiveness.
22. Communicative qualities of speech: relevance of speech.
The relevance of speech is the correspondence of the content of speech, its language means to the goals and conditions of communication.
Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational and aesthetic tasks of a written or oral presentation.
The relevance of speech covers different levels of language, and, in this regard, the relevance is distinguished:
style,
contextual,
situational,
personal-psychological
Stylistic relevance consists in the use of a separate word, turnover, syntactic construction in accordance with the goals of a particular style (scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial and artistic). For example, speech stamps, clerical expressions are typical for official business style. They are not appropriate either in the scientific style or in colloquial speech, and if they fall into these styles, they destroy the system and lead to speech errors.
The criterion of relevance is also violated in the case when, in artistic speech, the writer is fond of technical terminology, clichés of business speech:
Victor understood that the drilling itself gave the team much more benefits than pumping. The bulk of the money went for moldings, although less time was spent on drilling than on installing plumbing equipment. So it turned out that everything depended on the conscience of the master.
Victor wanted to suggest to his father a new drilling rig, received by SMU on the order. The machine was fundamentally new, drilling on it was carried out using compressed air without clay flushing fluid.
What is the need to introduce into artistic speech an abundance of technical, professional terms, the meaning of which is incomprehensible without special dictionaries and which do not perform any aesthetic function? They are functionally inappropriate here, and therefore irrelevant.
Contextual relevance is the appropriateness of using a word in context, taking into account the speech environment.
For example, colloquial speech is characterized by stereotype constructions: "Where was the string bag here?", "Moscow railway station, how can I get through?", "Talent is when you believe in yourself." The use of such constructions outside of colloquial speech is a violation of the modern grammatical norm.
However, in artistic style, in poetry, such constructions are found:
Sadness is when
The water will become fresh
Apples are bitter
Tobacco smoke is like a fumes.
(L. Martynov)
Situational relevance is the appropriateness of using speech means in certain speech situations.
Say, at a bus stop, instead of "Here is finally our bus" is it appropriate to use encyclopedic information and build the following phrase: "Here is finally our multi-seat car with a wagon-type body, at a speed of 60-100 km/h"?!
In such cases, one should consider the appropriateness in certain speech systems, in situations of speech, in the style of a work of art as a whole.
Relevance personal-psychological - this is the appropriateness of the use of speech means by an individual in accordance with the culture of his thinking, with his sensitive, benevolent and respectful attitude towards people, in accordance with his ideological position and conviction.
Speaking with an interlocutor, speaking to an audience, we not only communicate information, but also voluntarily or involuntarily convey our attitude to reality, to the people around us. Therefore, it is important to take care of how our speech will affect the interlocutor - whether it will injure with rudeness, whether it will humiliate his dignity.
The appropriateness of speech is a very important quality in the social aspect, since it regulates all our speech behavior.
The ability to find the right words, intonation in a particular communication situation is the key to a successful relationship between interlocutors, the emergence of feedback, the key to the moral and even physical health of people.
For example, the words "thank you, please excuse me" have power over our mood. Everyone is pleased to receive signs of attention, for "thank you" many of us are ready to work perfectly. There are no such signs of attention - and the mood deteriorates, resentment arises.
The following letter was sent to the editorial office of one of the newspapers:
"Today I received a passport - it seems to be a solemn day in my life, and I have tears of resentment in my eyes. It's hard for me to write about it, but this day will be remembered for a long time, unfortunately, not from the best side. Of course, I hoped that the person who will hand over the passport, say: "Congratulations! Now you are a citizen of Russia!", and feel a strong handshake. And I heard: "Give me 80 rubles, here's your passport and go."
An inappropriately harsh word, an inappropriately thrown remark; metallic intonations and categorical judgments can cause severe mental trauma to a person.
Violation of the criterion of relevance is always acutely felt in both oral and written speech. How to get rid of mistakes? It is not given to a person from birth; the ability to change the nature of speech in relation to the content, conditions and tasks of communication is brought up and becomes a solid skill if a person understands the need and achieves this.
23. Communicative qualities of speech: richness of speech.
Richness of speech
communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech-language. B. r. can be defined as the maximum possible saturation of it with different, non-repeating means of the language, to the extent that this is necessary for the implementation of the communicative intention. The more diverse the speech, the more information it contains, the more personal assessments, the author's attitude to the subject of speech. In the general concept of speech wealth, some of its varieties can be distinguished. Lexical B. r. manifested in the fact that words that do not carry a special communicative intention are used as rarely as possible. This can be achieved only if the speaker-writer has a large vocabulary.
24. Communicative qualities of speech: purity of speech.
Purity of speech - the absence in the speech of words-weeds, alien to the literary language (in short, this is the same thing, here, well, etc.). Self-control, attention to one's speech is the most important condition for mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener. This means that the speaker must, in the process of speaking, take care that each phrase and the entire message is correctly understood by the listener. Such understanding can and should be controlled, organized: repetitions, rephrasing of what was said, pauses, slowing down the pace of speech, raising the voice, etc. are important here. Finally, non-verbal means (facial expressions, gestures, pantomime) play an important role in the perception of oral speech. Then the listener will understand what is said adequately.
Numerous unjustified borrowings of foreign words and expressions, passion for informal vocabulary, free handling of literary and grammatical norms of the language - all this leads to ambiguity, confusion, and illogical statements.
25. Communicative qualities of speech: accuracy of speech.
The accuracy of speech is very closely related to logic. Accuracy and consistency reflect the connection between thinking and speech. Accuracy manifests itself at the level of operating with individual words, their connections and sentences, and consistency - at the level of the connection of sentences in the text.
It is impossible, having named an object, not to prove it, or, having proved, not to name it.
Accuracy is a truly communicative quality of speech, because it is designed to help understand the interlocutor. We must strive to ensure that we cannot be misunderstood.
The difference between accuracy and accessibility of speech is that accuracy focuses on the subject of speech and information about it, while accessibility focuses on the image and character of the addressee. Speech becomes accurate when the author knows what he wants to say and what he wants to achieve with his speech, and selects from all language means those that will help achieve the set speech task. "He who thinks clearly, speaks clearly."
Speech accuracy is:
· Conceptual (and close to it terminological). It is distinguished by the ratio of speech-thinking. Clearly manifested in a scientific style.
· Subject (and close to it actual). It stands out by the ratio of speech-reality. It is clearly shown in conversational style.
The variety and significance of language means of speech accuracy is best shown by errors:
Violation of accuracy associated with the vocabulary of different layers and groups (single-root words, synonyms, paronyms, generic and specific concepts, etc.)
o They were only doing their job.
o Let's go to the long expanses of the Arctic.
o Finally, the remains of the royal family were discovered.
o I read like fiction, and modern detectives and science fiction.
o I am not in Copenhagen (instead of: not competent)
Violation of the degree of detail and accuracy of speech
The accuracy of comparisons and analogies is important.
To achieve accuracy in the text of any form, the following conditions must be met:
Always know the subject of speech
Know the language, the system, the possibilities that this language provides
Be able to correlate knowledge of the subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a particular act of communication
Accurate word usage is achieved through the development of certain language skills:
・Choose the right word
Avoid speech inaccuracy due to inattention to the form of expression
Distinguish between single-root words, synonyms, paronyms, obsolete and foreign words.
Accuracy is a multifaceted quality. It is limited by the desire for the expediency of using language means.
26. Communicative qualities of speech: logic of speech.
The logicality of speech is the consistency, consistency of the statement. Violation of logic - violation of the order of words in a sentence, the connection of parts of a sentence, intraphrasal and interphrasal communication - leads to a possible inaccuracy in understanding what was said.
27. Communicative qualities of speech: the availability of speech.
The effectiveness and accessibility of speech are associated with taking into account the "human factor" in communication. They involve taking into account the interests of the listeners, age, level of education, social status of the communicants, their readiness to perceive information. the main task the speaker - to provide conditions for understanding to another person, otherwise it is impossible to talk about the implementation of such communicative qualities of speech as effectiveness and accessibility, and therefore, about the effectiveness of speech.
28. Communicative qualities of speech: expressiveness of speech.
The expressiveness (beauty) of speech is a very multifaceted concept, it is a set of speech features that maintain the attention and interest of listeners. Expressiveness is based on richness, it is achieved by using expressions in speech that avoid routine, unexpected turns.
We can say that expressive speech is emotional speech. The speaker must influence not only the mind, but also the feelings, the imagination of the listeners. The imagery and emotionality of speech enhance its effectiveness, contribute to its better perception, understanding and memorization, and provide aesthetic pleasure. But this statement can be refuted - unemotional speech can also be expressive, and a speaker who speaks in an even voice, without betraying his emotions in any way, can make a greater impression than a joker and joker.
The expressiveness of speech, as well as its richness, is the fruit of great labor. Gustave Flaubert ensured that he did not repeat the same word even on adjacent pages, for this he rewrote each page 5-7 times. Successful is only that impromptu, which is carefully prepared.
The expressiveness of speech is supported by special language and speech means of expressiveness, which include tropes and rhetorical figures. The purpose of these linguistic means is to make the thought more vivid, accurate, memorable. It is known that a catchy phrase affects the listener more than a deep thought. For example, the words of the poet N.A. Nekrasov: “Follow the rule stubbornly: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious.” Beautifully said, but if you think about it carefully, this advice will seem strange: it is crowded when there is too much of something, and spacious when there is too little of something, i.e. it is recommended to write in such a way that there are fewer thoughts and more words.
A trope is an unusual use of one word, a figurative use of it, which serves to decorate; a word or expression used in a figurative (indirect) sense.
A rhetorical figure is an unusual turn of speech designed to decorate it and enhance the emotional impact on listeners; special ways of constructing sentences and texts that enhance their expressiveness. If tropes are verbal figurativeness, then figures are syntactic figurativeness.
expressiveness of public speech. It enhances the performance. Vivid speech arouses additional interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners.
To make speech figurative, emotional, the speaker is helped by specific artistic techniques, visual and expressive means of language. These traditionally include tropes, figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words.
For example, tropes are turns of speech and words that retain expressiveness and figurativeness in a figurative sense. Usually the first meaning of the word gives the additional some unusual coloring.
Skillful operation with proverbs and sayings gives the performance a deeper meaning. An accurately noticed moment can successfully mark your own thought.
In addition, the proverbs contain the wisdom of the people, and if they are chosen correctly, this will once again confirm your correctness.
Also, your performance can be decorated with popular expressions. This is most often famous sayings wise people.
Like proverbs, these expressions can confirm your thought, they can be an epithet for your entire report.
But do not forget that all these means should be appropriate.
You should not abuse metaphors and comparisons in a strict scientific report, just as you should not use catchy Latin expressions or just words in a foreign language in an audience that obviously will not understand them. These are only auxiliary means, and if you are poorly prepared, then you should not engage in excessive embellishment, as this will not save things, but will look like shaking the air. Such people are usually called demagogues.
29. Communicative qualities of speech: the correctness of speech.
Correctness is considered the main communicative quality of speech, since it underlies other qualities, is their necessary condition. As B.N. Golovin, "there is no correctness - other communicative qualities cannot" work - accuracy, logicality, relevance, etc. ".
The correctness of speech can be defined as the correspondence of its linguistic structure to the currently accepted literary norms. It is based on a solid foundation of norms, which are sufficiently fully and consistently reflected in grammars, reference books, dictionaries, and teaching aids.
The correctness of speech consists in observing the currently accepted literary norms, reflected in dictionaries, grammar references, spelling and punctuation rules.
spelling correctness. Spelling correctness is necessary for easier and faster perception of the written text and is ensured by a solid knowledge of the relevant rules.
For newspaper practice recent years There are two typical spelling errors:
Incorrect use of capital letters
inappropriate use of quotation marks.
The capital letter is used much more widely than it is provided by the current rules. Write with capital letter all words in the name of the party, institution, company. According to the rules, it is enough to capitalize the first word in the title. The titles of positions of various levels are sometimes written with a capital letter, although the rule applies only to higher government positions.
Quotes are also widely used. Sometimes you can see the names of settlements (usually settlements), city districts enclosed in quotation marks, which is unacceptable from the point of view of modern norms spelling.
orthoepic correctness. Orthoepic correctness consists in observing:
rules of pronunciation and stress;
intonation rules.
Mistakes in the placement of stress are found in the speech of party activists and deputies, they can be easily avoided by referring to dictionaries. Stresses are indicated not only in special orthoepic dictionaries and stress reference books, but also in many other types of dictionaries.
Typical intonation errors are incorrect logical stress (singling out words that are not main in meaning in a phrase), interrogative intonation in a narrative phrase, pauses that violate the syntactic structure of the phrase.
Intonation errors are prevented by preparing for public speech (preliminary reading of the text aloud) and by controlling the sound of one's own speech.
grammatical correctness. The grammatical correctness of speech consists of observing the norms of morphology and syntax of the modern Russian literary language and consists in the correct choice of morphological forms of the word and the correct construction of phrases and sentences.
New public and economic relations led to a change in the meanings of some words, and thus to changes in the functioning of grammatical categories. Some words that previously did not have a plural form in modern speech have received the following form: administrations, budgets, economies, risks, strategies, priorities, approaches, structures. This form is associated with the need to name a number of objects, errors in these cases give rise to a change in the norm. At the same time, the word forms of reality and concern appear to be violations of the norm, as they distort the lexical meaning of the word.
In the field of word formation, modern newspaper speech is distinguished by the active use of some prefixes and suffixes. Although word production in a language is a natural and necessary process, not all neoplasms adorn our speech. Consider, for example, the use of the suffix -ization: informatization, humanitarianization, farming, regionalization, criminalization, and even storefrontization. In some cases, the reader will simply not be clear about the meaning of such a word, devoid of a specific image and created according to a template.
The main problem of modern word formation, however, is not in the abuse of individual suffixes, but in the mixing of word-formation means with different stylistic coloring. Within the framework of one newspaper article, one can meet and special terms such as vexelization, and journalistic labels such as Gaidarization, Zyuganovshchina, and vulgar words such as chernukha, scam, bank transfer, compra.
The combination of the same suffix with different stems generates words of different styles, depending on whether the derived word receives a special, strictly limited meaning, whether it acquires a vivid figurative meaning or an approximate meaning, which is typical for colloquial speech.
The foregoing leads us to the conclusion that the writer should pay attention to the coloring given to the word by word-building means and use them in accordance with the genre.