Karpenkov S. Concepts of modern natural science (S
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Stepan Karpenkov
Concepts of modern natural science
PREFACE TO THE TWELVE EDITION
Dedicated to young people obsessed with the thirst for knowledge - a source of harmony and perfection
The proposed textbook, along with other books by the author, was awarded a high state award - the Government Prize Russian Federation in the field of education.
More than fifteen years that have passed since the first edition (1997) have shown that this textbook turned out to be useful and interesting for a wide range of readers and, above all, for university students. educational institutions, including graduates who decide to get a second higher education. This is evidenced by its numerous reprints.
The content of the textbook is interdisciplinary in nature: it covers a wide range of knowledge about nature that everyone needs educated person. Such knowledge is the basic resource for the development of society, the creative power of mankind and an effective means of preserving natural state nature.
As a result of studying the concepts of modern natural science, the student should know:
- the main provisions of the knowledge of the world;
– fundamental laws of nature;
– natural science concepts of development;
– natural science foundations modern technologies, energy and ecology;
– ways of solving natural-science problems;
- based on natural science knowledge, to focus their practical activities on the conservation of nature and its richest resources;
- provide all possible assistance in solving natural science problems;
master the skills:
– practical application of knowledge about nature as a basic resource for economic development;
- organization of labor activity with a harmonious combination of nature and man;
be competent:
– in solving practical problems of preserving the biosphere and saving life on Earth.
Multiple editions of the proposed textbook were revised, supplemented and changed. Compared to the first edition, the latest edition is essentially a new book with didactic elements that meet state educational standards. All its chapters include new information and the latest natural scientific achievements.
The textbook is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas and specialties of management, economics, law, tourism, entrepreneurship, business, ecology, sociology, etc., daytime, evening and correspondence courses.
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION
With the accumulation of new materials and information, subsequent editions were significantly improved, supplemented, and corrections and clarifications were made to them. When finalizing, many years of experience in lecturing and conducting practical classes for students of various specialties were taken into account. As a result, the textbook was improved and modified: the number of chapters was reduced from nineteen (in the first edition) to eleven (in later editions), obsolete information was replaced by new ones, some sections were written anew, etc. The seventh edition was revised and corrected.
The pages of the book are scattered with precious grains collected over the course of millennia by many generations of natural scientists and containing the most necessary, guiding, without which it is impossible to start any creative work.
The concepts of modern natural science are the most important link connecting natural science and humanitarian knowledge and strengthening the fundamental base of all forms of education.
AT modern world rapidly approaching economic, environmental and spiritual and moral crises. The way out of them is quite possible if every person living on our planet awakens the will to natural-scientific and spiritual-moral truth and if each person makes his own, albeit small, but feasible contribution to the solution of this complex, global problem. This book will help you find your own way of knowing the truth.
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the instruction of the Russian publicist D.I. Pisareva (1840-1868): "You have to study at school, but you still need to study much more after leaving school."
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION
The proposed fifth edition of this textbook has been revised and, in comparison with the previous one, contains new information about the latest major achievements in the field of natural science.
The textbook consists of four parts. Part I substantiates the practical significance of natural science in modern society and the main provisions of the natural-scientific knowledge of the surrounding world are considered. Part II outlines the fundamental laws and concepts of natural science. Part III is devoted to the natural-science concepts of the development of processes in nature. Part IV deals with the natural science foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
The material of the textbook is presented within the framework of concepts - fundamental ideas and a systematic approach - and is presented in a visual and accessible form.
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
In modern society, much attention is paid not only to various branches of natural science, but also to rapidly developing high technology, energy and ecology. This textbook is devoted to the fundamental concepts of natural science and the natural scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
It consists of five parts, which successively set out the main issues provided for by the state educational standards for studying the discipline "Concepts of modern natural science" in higher educational institutions.
The textbook is written at the level of concepts of natural science problems, i.e., taking into account the fundamental ideas, systems of views on the issues under study. When presenting the material, widely known terms and simple mathematical formulas are used, reflecting the fundamental laws of nature. The natural scientific essence of the issues covered is presented in an accessible form for a wide range of readers.
The book is intended for students of higher educational institutions of daytime, evening and correspondence forms teaching economic, legal, philosophical and other humanitarian specialties.
INTRODUCTION
Finally, I lend a hand to a truly useful science.
Horace
Every person, starting from a very early age, is distinguished by curiosity - a natural desire to know the world around him. “Curiosity is akin to a person both enlightened and wild,” said the outstanding Russian historian and writer N.M. Karamzin (1766–1826). With age, unconscious curiosity gradually develops into curiosity - a conscious desire to learn the laws that govern nature, to learn how to apply them in one's work, foreseeing its possible consequences. The laws of nature and the ways in which they are applied reflect the concentrated experience of mankind. Based on it, a person is able to protect himself from mistakes, and it is easier for him to achieve his desired goals. The concentrated experience of humanity underlies any educational process.
Natural science is a unified system of sciences about the laws, phenomena and properties of objects of nature, including many branches - the natural sciences.
The most important achievements of natural science constitute the fundamental basis of modern science-intensive technologies for the production of various products, including consumer goods. In order to know at what price such products are given - the most important component of the economy, what are the prospects for the development of modern technologies that are closely related to economic, social and political problems, we need fundamental knowledge about nature - natural science knowledge. In our time, natural scientific knowledge has become a sphere of active actions and represents the basic resource of the economy, surpassing material resources in its significance: capital, land, labor, etc. Natural scientific knowledge and modern technologies based on them form a new image life, and a highly educated person cannot distance himself from fundamental knowledge about the world around him without risking being helpless in his professional activities. “Without the natural sciences, there is no salvation for modern man; without this healthy food, without this strict education of thought by facts, without this closeness to the life around us, ”the Russian writer and philosopher A.I. gave such a high assessment of natural science knowledge. Herzen (1812–1879).
If we set forth in detail the natural science knowledge accumulated in all branches of natural science, we will get a huge tome, perhaps necessary, but of little use even for specialists in the natural sciences, not to mention specialists in the humanities and socio-economic areas. The task of presentation is further complicated by the fact that its form must be accessible to students whose future professional activity has nothing to do with natural science. To solve this problem, a generalizing philosophical principle is needed. Its essence lies in the presentation of natural scientific knowledge within the framework of concepts - fundamental ideas and a systematic approach. The conceptual principle allows students to gain fundamental, complex knowledge about nature, and on their basis to study highly specialized disciplines more deeply.
Modern means natural sciences make it possible to study many of the most complex processes at the level of atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules, cells, and then to synthesize substances with unusual properties that did not previously exist in nature, and from them to produce new materials for various machines, devices, products, etc. In addition, thanks to such research, high-yielding crop plants are grown, highly effective treatments for diseases are developed, etc.
Any promising area of human activity is directly or indirectly associated with a new material base and new technologies, and knowledge of their natural scientific essence is the key to success. Without fundamental knowledge about nature, an erroneous public opinion leading to a biased decision, as happened, for example, with the unjustified announcement of a temporary (1975–1985) moratorium on genetic engineering. Consequently, natural science knowledge is needed not only for highly qualified specialists, but also for any educated person, regardless of the field of his activity.
In the pursuit of material values, modern humanity has already gone beyond the limits of the stable state of the biosphere, which includes all living things together with the environment. This means that as a result of the invasion of civilization in nature, a stable balance has already been disturbed, which for a long time ensures the circulation of substances. This is reminiscent of the destructive natural phenomena that have become more frequent over the past decade: hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, droughts, causing enormous material damage and accompanied by an increasing number of human casualties.
The transformation of a modern consumer society into a spiritually developed enlightened society is an extremely difficult task. It can be solved only by developing the entire system of education by the common forces of educated people, for whom the guiding star is not luxury, not profit and other seductive idols, but the realm of goodness, freedom and truth. The noble, but thorny path to such a kingdom begins with education by love in the earliest childhood, when the spiritual and moral foundation is laid for the assimilation of knowledge at all levels of education, and continues throughout the life of each person.
Knowledge does not come by itself. You have to work hard and study hard. “One must learn without being ashamed, and teach without being stingy,” as the well-known thinker Basil the Great (c. 330–379) said in ancient times, and only in this case can one hope for success.
PART I NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE MODERN WORLD
Learn, my son: science shortens our experiences of fleeting life...
A.S. Pushkin
For us, the science of natural science is the very lever that is the only one capable of turning the whole world towards the sun.
M. Gorky
As a result of studying Part I, the student should know:
- the object and subject of study of the discipline "Concepts of modern natural science";
– modern natural science problems;
- the main provisions of natural science knowledge;
– apply their knowledge in solving problems of nature conservation;
master the skills:
– careful attitude to nature in any practical human activity.
1. NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1.1. Natural science knowledge and educationHistory of the development of knowledge about nature. Throughout the history of the development of society, the basis of education was knowledge about nature, knowledge about man and knowledge about society. Obviously, these three components of education are interconnected: nature gave birth to man, and people make up society. According to the prominent Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841–1911), “the human personality, human society and the nature of the country are the three main forces that build human community ... The ideal of the historical education of the people consists in the complete and harmonious development of all elements of community life and in such a ratio in which each element develops and acts to the extent of its normal significance in the social composition, without belittling itself and without oppressing others.
The long history of the development of civilization shows that the named elements of educational systems different in form and content were far from always in full harmony and constituted a harmonious unity. So, in ancient times, knowledge about nature - natural science knowledge - was descriptive, speculative, natural-philosophical in nature. The focus was on human knowledge.
The ancient Greek thinker Socrates (c. 470-399 BC) believed that the main function of knowledge is self-knowledge and the intellectual, moral, spiritual growth of a person. His contemporary, the ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras (c. 480-410 BC), argued that the purpose of knowledge is to make human activity more successful and fruitful. However, both philosophers did not believe that knowledge is a direct path to skills and abilities. In those days, it was possible to master this or that craft from the master or by accumulating your own experience. Until the beginning of the XVIII century. in English language the concept of “craft” was expressed by the word mystery, meaning a sacrament, and not only because the one who possessed the secret of this or that craft swore an oath not to reveal secrets, but also because the craft was inaccessible to a person who had not been trained by a master and had not adopted it in practice experience.
In Russia already in the XIV century. a unique community of free masters, known as the “artel”, arose. Unlike similar communities in the West, the artel on Russian soil was not only and not so much a commercial association of narrow-profile craftsmen in the modern sense, but rather a community of fellow believers who professed Orthodoxy and observed the laws of freedom and justice. Being a peculiar form of social labor, the artel established the rules of life and influenced the character and behavior of everyone, repaying according to his deeds and the deeds of the surrounding family. The dignity of a person was evaluated, first of all, by belonging to one or another kind of masters.
The birth of technology. With the development of natural science knowledge, when, starting from the 18th century. the first fundamental laws of nature were discovered with their subsequent practical application, the concept of "technology" appeared. It comes from the words techne - art, craft and logos - concept, teaching, which together means organized, systematized, purposeful knowledge.
Educational institutions were created to study technology. The first of these, the School of Bridges and Roads, was founded in France in 1747; it was followed by the School of Agriculture in 1770 and the School of Mining in 1776 (both in Germany). In 1794, a higher educational institution, the Polytechnic University, was opened in France. It was the first technical university for the training of engineers. In higher educational institutions founded earlier, for example, at the oldest in Europe, the University of Bologna, opened in 1088 in Italy, non-technical and unnatural sciences were studied: mathematics, logic, philosophy, etc. Later, medical practice was also transformed into a systematized branch of scientific knowledge .
Entry into science and comprehension of technology in Russia was determined by the peculiarities of its nature and economic life, together with the temperament and mind of the Great Russians, which, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “they think and act as they walk; it seems that you can come up with a crooked and winding Great Russian country road? Like a snake crawled through. And try to go straight: you will only get lost and go out onto the same winding path. And at the same time, "not a single people in Europe is capable of such a strain of labor for a short time that a Great Russian can develop."
In the found few chronicles and codes of Ancient Russia, natural phenomena were described: solar and lunar eclipses, northern lights, the movement of comets and the fall of meteorites, thunderstorms, storms, floods; technical information was given about the types and arrangement of weapons, the construction of fortresses and churches, the casting of bells and cannons, clockwork, the construction of bridges, etc. Moreover, astronomical phenomena were noted with “great accuracy”. Time brought to us the name of the first Russian scientist, astronomer and mathematician Kirik of Novgorod, who wrote in 1136 the scientific treatise “Teaching by him to know the number of all years for a person”, which has no analogue either in Old Russian, or in Byzantine, or in South Slavic literature. Feudal fragmentation, the Tatar-Mongol invasion and other factors held back the development of culture, science and education in Russia. If in Europe, after the invention of printing by I. Gutenberg (1399–1468), printing houses multiplied and books were printed in Latin, then in Russia at that time their own printing was just being established, founded by Ivan Fedorov (c. 1510–1583), who published in 1564 The first Russian printed book "Apostle". A radical change in the development of science, education and culture in Russia came under Peter I (1672–1725).
With the development of natural science knowledge in the West, and especially in Great Britain, inventions began to take root, and the craft of masters ceased to be a sacrament and a secret. The ascent to technology from crafts was largely facilitated by the publication of the first "Encyclopedia", compiled in 1751-1780. Denis Diderot (1713-1784), Jean d'Alembert (1717-1783) and others. In this greatest fundamental work, information about many types of crafts was presented in an organized and systematized form, which made it possible to obtain specialized knowledge without being hired as an apprentice. Scientific articles for the "Encyclopedia" were written by prominent scientists of that time - Voltaire (1694-1778), Rousseau (1712-1778), etc.
The first technical schools and the "Encyclopedia" solved the most important task for the development of science and technology - they brought together, systematized and made public the knowledge, skills and secrets of various crafts, previously transmitted orally from generation to generation for many centuries and even millennia. They transformed practical experience into professional knowledge, practical training into textbooks, secrets into methodology, and concrete actions into applied sciences. All this contributed to the development of science, technology and industrial production.
Universality of education.“Three paths lead to knowledge: the path of reflection is the noblest path, the path of imitation is the easiest path, the path of experience is the most bitter,” said the ancient Chinese thinker Confucius (c. 551-479 BC). Without a doubt, this is how all branches of knowledge have always developed. However, if in ancient times the path of reflection prevailed, then in recent centuries, experience, experiment and practice have become decisive - the most difficult, but productive way of knowing the world around us, leading to the development of natural scientific knowledge, and with them specialized, branch sciences to achieve concrete results that are useful not only to the individual, but also to society. What is now considered to be true knowledge is constantly proving its practical significance and is being tested by experience, in practice.
In the modern generalized view, knowledge is information that has practical value. Recently, in many countries there has been a transition to an economy based on the movement not only of traditional material resources and goods, but also new ideas and industry knowledge that make up information resources. Information technology plays a decisive role in this. Thanks to their implementation, for example, in the United States, the annual increase in gross domestic product is more than 30%, or about 600 billion dollars, and according to this indicator, the information industry is ahead of the aviation and automotive industries.
However, the unsystematic approach to the mass consumption of information and its excess generate information chaos, which depends on many factors and, above all, on the education system. The time-driven striving for narrow specialization, multi-subjects in secondary and higher schools, oversaturation of curricula, computer addiction and other "innovations" lead to the fact that not only teachers and lecturers, but also their students - future specialists in various industries - are like the builders of the Tower of Babel stop understanding each other. At the same time, the universality and breadth of education are gradually being lost. Redundancy, excessive structuring of information and, together with them, information chaos turn away from knowledge and, as a result, cause panic and generate ignorance. “A society driven by panic turns away from knowledge and seeks salvation in ignorance,” Russian writer M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826–1889). With the loss of universality and breadth of education, the opportunity to acquire the practical knowledge necessary for the development of new technologies is lost.
In the last century, the isolation of natural scientific and humanitarian knowledge began to be tangibly and clearly manifested, and a huge gap formed between them, which was reached in the 50s of the 20th century. drew the attention of the English writer Charles Snow (1905-1980). In his opinion, society cannot survive without knowledge of the house in which it lives, or without knowledge about the world around it - without natural science knowledge. However, in recent decades, such practically significant knowledge in domestic education has not been given due attention by the state, which, by omission, gives preference to mass liberal arts education. Any society, fencing itself off from natural scientific knowledge, cannot coordinate its actions with the fundamental laws of nature, and especially if it loses spiritual and moral guidelines. This idea can be continued by the words of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Russia (1929-2008): “I am convinced that no matter how much humanity has grown over the past century in its own eyes, it needs to sit down at the school desk again. We need to learn again what people have lost their ecstasy over the years own strength and pride - to learn humility, the ability to ascetically limit one's desires, obedience to the will of God, and a moral way of life. Otherwise, all the achievements of science and technology will turn their power against us, and the Tower of Babel of human power will fall, burying its builders under the rubble. The hardest work for each of us will be not external, but internal. The gospel advises us to look first into ourselves.
Many researchers both in Russia and in other countries have come to understand the need for the universality and fundamental nature of modern education based on knowledge about nature, man and society. They came in different ways and for different reasons. And they propose to solve this problem in different ways: some see a way out in the humanitarization of the natural sciences and technical education, and others - in the need to teach the natural sciences for students of humanitarian areas and specialties. At the same time, both come to a common opinion: the goal of studying all disciplines is the same - to ensure the future of human existence in the biosphere. However, a clearly defined goal does not define the means to achieve it. Indeed, the amount of information needed to study is extremely large. A legitimate question arises: is it possible to study it? And after him, another question: how to study it? It turns out that you can, if you use the conceptual principle that allows you to study the subject within the framework of fundamental ideas and a systematic approach. This fundamental principle of education is not only a subject of discussion, but also a guide to action in the presentation of the subject being studied.
Education at the turn of the millennium. In connection with the increasing anthropogenic impact on the biosphere and the aggravation of the environmental problem, modern natural science education is becoming an effective means of mastering knowledge not only to solve many scientific and technological problems, but also to protect the environment in order to save life on our planet.
For many centuries, the education system has been constantly improved and in our time allows you to get a significantly larger amount of knowledge in a shorter period of time, which is constantly growing. If in the 1870s the volume of knowledge of all mankind increased approximately twice in a decade, in the 1980s - in 5 years, in the 1990s - every year, then at the beginning of this century this period was reduced to several months.
The development of education is the most important task of any state and humanity as a whole. In many countries, enlightened authorities are aware that investing in education - intellectual potential - is a profitable form of investment. However, the education system in different countries funded in different ways. For example, the annual cost of education per student in the USA is 18.57 thousand dollars, in Denmark - 11.60, in Spain - 6.03, and in Mexico - only 5.30 thousand dollars.
The rapid growth of the volume of new knowledge, subject to an exponential pattern, requires an increase in the effectiveness of training and an increase in its duration. Currently, the average length of study in Europe is 15 years, in North America it is 14 years, in South America- 13 years, in Asia - 9.2 years, in Africa - 7 years and worldwide - an average of 10 years. It is assumed that in the coming decades, the duration of training required for a highly qualified specialist will approach 18 years. Despite the wide distribution of education, it does not cover the entire population of the globe, even at the primary level. According to UN statistics, about 3.5 billion people in the world today can read and write, which is about 3 times more than 40 years ago. At the same time, approximately 900 million adults can neither read nor write, and two-thirds of them are women. The adult illiteracy rate in many developing countries is more than 50%: in Nigeria - 80%, in Mali - 73%, in Iraq, Ethiopia and Bangladesh - 60%, in Pakistan - 58%.
Every year since 1990, the number of children in school has increased by about 10 million worldwide, and today there are about 700 million. At the same time, more than 100 million school-age children do not have the opportunity to sit at the school desk . Ensuring universal primary education is one of the priorities formulated in the UN Millennium Declaration.
The problems of education were discussed in 2006 at the G8 summit in St. Petersburg, where decisions were made on international cooperation aimed at improving the quality national education and its accessibility to the general population.
Only through a perfect education system, including spiritual and moral education, modern society will be able to preserve the natural environment and ensure the further development of civilization.
The fruits of domestic education. Not plunging into the wilds of history Russian education, it can be unmistakably argued that the education system has been reformed at all times, although this was not always necessary. There has been no urgent need to reform education in recent decades. After all, with all the flaws of the previous social structure and the utopianism of the communist ideology, in the recent past, an education system was established in our country, which made it possible for everyone to receive good knowledge.
The hasty, failed reforms that began in our country in the 1990s and are still continuing under the sign of democratization, liberalization, humanization and other modernization have led not only to the massive impoverishment of the Russian people and the enrichment of a small group of businessmen free of conscience, but also to a sharp drop in the level of education, which is now called the quality of education at the direction of ministerial officials. At the same time, the policy of quality education has turned into a policy of complete delusion. As a result, knowledge has been devalued. Lost respect and honor teachers and teachers. Their wages have been drastically reduced. Various forms of paid "educational" services flourish, under the guise of which many heads of so-called educational institutions profit, and teachers receive a miserable salary. Pupils stopped listening to teachers and parents, and students stopped listening to teachers. Terrible crimes are sometimes committed: teachers and professors, striving to give the most precious thing - knowledge, become a victim of the aggression of their ill-bred students.
The precious time of young people began to absorb various films and performances showing intimate relationships, computer games and, especially, the Internet with inexhaustible seductive services. Children began to show their latent abilities to write and draw more actively on the facades of houses, on the walls of schools and on desks. Some schools and universities have become dens of drug addicts. Smoking and even alcohol have come into fashion, to which children are introduced in their earliest childhood. And the result, as they say, was not long in coming: a lot of entertainment became available for children and teenagers, where under the guise cultural recreation young people are being stupefied, and in this murky environment, many rogues are making good money by arranging gatherings where all means are good: powerful audio and video equipment, drugs, and alcohol.
Judging by the definition of education given in the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" (education is education and training in the interests of a person, society and the state), the education process includes an important component - education. A good education can grow only on fertile soil with spiritual and moral guidelines strengthened by upbringing.
Concepts of modern natural science. Karpenkov S.Kh.
6th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2003. - 488 p.
The textbook is written in accordance with the State Educational Standards (GOS 2000). It outlines the issues of natural-scientific knowledge of the surrounding world, fundamental concepts, principles and laws of nature, actual problems of modern natural science, related to the study of natural processes and properties of matter at the molecular level, reflects the natural scientific aspects of energy, ecology and highlights the most important achievements of natural science that underlie modern science-intensive technologies.
Designed for students of higher educational institutions. It may be interesting and useful to a wide range of readers.
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FOREWORD TO THE SIXTH EDITION
The first edition of the proposed book was published in 1997. It was one of the first textbooks devoted to the discipline "Concepts of modern natural science", studied by students of higher educational institutions of socio-economic and humanitarian areas.
With the accumulation of new materials and information, subsequent editions were significantly improved, supplemented, and corrections and clarifications were made to them. When finalizing, many years of experience in lecturing and conducting practical classes in State University management. As a result, the textbook was improved and modified: the number of chapters was reduced from nineteen (in the first edition) to eleven (in later editions), obsolete information was replaced by new ones, some sections were written anew, etc. The sixth edition was substantially revised and corrected.
In the proposed textbook, fundamental natural science knowledge is presented in a concise and accessible form, i.e. knowledge about nature that every educated person needs in order not only to tell the secrets, power and beauty of nature, but also to understand what needs to be done to preserve the environment and live in harmony with nature.
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the instruction of the Russian publicist D.I. Pisareva (1840-1868): "You have to study at school, but you still need to study much more after leaving school."
The book is intended for students of higher educational institutions of full-time, evening and correspondence courses in the specialties of economics, law, management, philosophy, sociology, ecology, management, marketing, commodity science, tourism, business, finance, entrepreneurship, etc.
Foreword ................................................................ ................................................. .................. eight
Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ........... 9
PART I. NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE MODERN WORLD............................ 11
1. Natural science and the world around .............................................. ................... 13
1.1. natural science knowledge and modern education................................ 13
1.2. The role of natural science in the formation of professional knowledge. . eighteen
1.3. Natural-scientific knowledge and the sphere of management .............................................. .23
1.4. Fundamental and Applied Problems of Natural Science .................................. 27
1.5. Natural science and mathematics .................................................................. ................. 31
1.6. The development of natural science and pseudoscientific tendencies .............................. 35
1.7. Natural science and morality .............................................................. ........... 42
1.8. Rational and irrational principles of cognition.................................................. 46
56
2. Natural-scientific knowledge of the surrounding world .................................... 57
2.1. The process of natural scientific knowledge .............................................................. .57
2.2. Forms of natural-scientific knowledge .............................................. ... 62
2.3. Methods and techniques of natural science research .......................................... 70
2.4. Scientific discovery and proof .............................................................. .................... 77
2.5. Experiment - the basis of natural science ............................................... ... 82
2.6. Modern means of natural science research....................... 85
2.7. The most important achievements of modern natural science .......................................................... 90
Test questions................................................ ................................. 93
PART II. FUNDAMENTAL LAWS AND CONCEPTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE
3. Fundamental principles and laws............................................... ...................... 97
3.1. Physics is a fundamental branch of natural science .......................................................... 97
3.2. Matter and motion, time and space....................................... 104
3.3. The concept of atomism. Discreteness and continuity of matter. . . 108
3.4. Fundamental interactions ........................ ,...................... ......... ON
3.5. The principle of relativity ................................... ................................... 116
3.6. Properties of space - time and conservation laws .............................. 118
3.7. Newton's fundamental laws............................................................... ......... 122
3.8. Statistical and thermodynamic properties of macrosystems.... 125
3.9. Thermodynamic laws .................................................................. ....................... 129
3.10. Electromagnetic concept............................................................... ................................... 134
3.11.Corpuscular-wave properties of light .............................................. ... 138
Test questions................................................ ............................................... 143
4. Atomic to nucleon levels of the structure of matter.......................... 144
4.1. The structure of atoms................................................... ................................... 144
4.2. Corpuscular-wave properties of microparticles .............................................. 147
4.3. Probabilistic nature of microprocesses .............................................................. ...... 150
4.4. Modern atomic systems ............................................................... ............... 153
4.5. Nuclear processes .................................................................. ................................................. 156
4.6. Elementary particles................................................ ........................... 164
4.7. Prospects for the development of the physics of the microworld .............................................. ........ 166
169
PART III . NATURAL-SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT. . . 171
5. The concept of development and evolution of the Universe .............................................. ............. 173
5.1. The essence of the concept of development .............................................................. ......................... 173
5.2. Evolution of the Universe .................................................................. ............................... 176
5.3. Structure of the Universe .................................................................. ...................................... 182
5.4. Means of Observation of the Objects of the Universe....................................... 185
5.5. The problem of the search for extraterrestrial civilizations .............................................. ........ 188
5.6. The solar system is part of the universe .............................................. ............. 190
5.7. Earth is a planet in the solar system .............................................. ...... 195
Test questions................................................ ............................................ 202
6. Natural science knowledge about matter .................................................... 203
6.1. Development of chemical knowledge .............................................................. ................. 203
6.2. Synthesis of chemicals ............................................................... ................... 207
6.3. Modern catalysis .............................................................. .............................. 212
6.4. Formation of terrestrial and extraterrestrial substances............................................... 218
6.5. Natural resources of raw materials ............................................................... ......................... 220
6.6. Organic raw materials ................................................................ .............................. 227
6.7. New chemical elements ............................................................... ................. 234
6.8. Promising chemical processes .................................................................. ... 238
6.9. Modern materials .................................................................. ......................... 243
6.10. Promising materials .................................................................. ................... 252
Test questions................................................ ................................. 261
7. Biosphere level organizations matter ................................................. 262
7.1. The origin of living matter .............................................................. ................... 262
7.2. Carrier of genetic information .................................................................. .............. 264
7.3. Structure and functions of proteins .............................................................. ................. 269
7.4. The structure and types of cells .............................................................. ................... 271
7.5. Origin of life .................................................................. ......................... 275
7.6. Background of the evolutionary idea .............................................................. ......... 279
7.7. The evolution of life................................................... .............................................. 283
7.8. Flora and fauna.............................................. ............... 294
7.9. Man is a phenomenon of nature .............................................. ......................... 302
7.10. Human life .................................................................................. ......................... 310
7.11. Extending the life of the body .............................................................. ........................... 321
7.12. Formation of the noosphere .............................................................. ................... 327
Test questions................................................ ............................................ 328
PART IV . NATURAL SCIENTIFIC BASES OF MODERN TECH-
NOLOGY, ENERGY AND ECOLOGY..................................................
329
8. Natural-science aspects of technologies............................................... ..... 331
8.1. Development of information technology tools............................................... 331
8.2. Modern means of accumulating information .............................................. 337
8.3. Multimedia systems and the virtual world............................................... 342
8.4. Micro- and nanoelectronic technologies ............................................................... .344
8.5. Laser technology .................................................................. ...................................... 352
8.6. Modern biotechnologies .............................................................. ................. 359
8.7. Gene technologies .................................................................. ......................................... 361
8.8. The problem of cloning .............................................................. ................................. 364
366
9. Natural-scientific problems of modern energy .......................................... 367
9.1. Energy is the source of well-being .............................................. ............. 367
9.2. Energy Conversion .................................................................. ...................... 369
9.3. Efficiency of production and consumption of energy............................................... 373
9.4. Thermal power plants .................................................................. .............. 375
9.5. Increasing the efficiency of energy systems............................................... 376
9.6. Hydro sources and geothermal sources of energy .................................... 382
9.7. Solar energy ............................................... ................................... 387
9.8. Wind energy................................................ ......................................... 389
9.9. Nuclear power................................................ ............................................... 392
9.10. Peculiarities of domestic power industry .................................................................. ...... 396
Test questions................................................ ................................... 398
10. Natural-scientific aspects of ecology.......................................... 399
10.1. Global catastrophes and the evolution of life............................................... 399
10.2. Prevention of ecological catastrophe .............................................. 403
10.3. Natural disasters and climate ............................................... ............ 405
10.4. Greenhouse effect and acid precipitation .................................................. . 412
10.5. Conservation of the ozone layer .............................................................. ........................... 416
10.6. Water resources and their conservation .............................................................. ......... . 420
10.7. Energy Consumption and Our Living Environment.................................... 422
10.8. Radioactive impact on the biosphere............................................... 425
10.9.
Natural-scientific problems of environmental protection ....... 431
Test questions................................................ ............................................ 434
11. Harmony of nature and man .................................................................... 435
11.1. Human and nature............................................... ................................... 435
11.2. Conservation of natural resources .............................................................. ........ 436
11.3. Power systems upgrade .................................................................. ................. 438
11.4. Efficient energy consumption .................................................................. ..... 439
11.5. Saving material resources .................................................................. ...... 444
11.6. Saving resources on transport .............................................................. ...... 446
11.7. Cities and nature ............................................... ............................. 451
11.8. Solving recycling problems .............................................................. .............. 454
11.9. Promising Technologies and the Environment.............................. 459
11.10. Globalization of biospheric processes............................................................... 460
Test questions................................................ ................................... 462
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ...... 464
Literature................................................. ................................................. ................ 465
Glossary of special terms ............................................................... ............................... . 466
Name index ................................................................ ................................................. .......... 479
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All books by the author: Karpenkov S. (2)
Karpenkov S. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook for universities
Introduction.. 4
PART I. NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE MODERN WORLD.. 6
Chapter I. NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6
1.1. The role of natural science in the formation of professional knowledge 6
1.2. Natural science in a changing world... 10
1.3. Fundamental and applied problems of natural science... 12
1.4. Natural science and mathematics... 14
1.5. Development of natural science and anti-scientific tendencies 16
1.6. Natural science and morality ... 19
1.7. Rational and real picture of the world.. 22
1.8. Natural science and religious knowledge. 24
Test questions . 28
Chapter II. NATURAL-SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 29
2.1. Natural scientific knowledge is the process of comprehending the truth... 29
2.2. Forms of natural science knowledge. 32
2.4. Scientific discovery and proof 41
2.5. Experiment - the basis of natural science 44
2.6. Modern means of natural science research... 49
2.7. The most important achievements of modern natural science 52
Test questions . 55
PART II. FUNDAMENTAL LAWS AND CONCEPTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 56
Chapter 3. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND LAWS... 56
3.1. Physics is a fundamental branch of natural science.. 56
3.2. The concept of atomism and the universality of physical laws. 61
3.3. Fundamental interactions. 63
3.4. Concepts of matter, motion, space and time.. 66
3.5. The principle of relativity and invariance ... 69
3.6. Properties of space, time and conservation laws 71
3.7. Newton's fundamental laws 73
3.8. Statistical and thermodynamic properties of macrosystems 75
3.9. Thermodynamic laws. 78
3.10. Electromagnetic concept 80
3.11. Corpuscular-wave properties of light. 83
Test questions . 87
Chapter 4. ATOMIC AND NUCLEON LEVELS OF MATTER ORGANIZATION... 87
4.1. The evolution of ideas about the structure of atoms ... 87
4.2. Bohr's postulates.. 89
4.3. Corpuscular-wave properties of microparticles. 90
4.4. Probabilistic nature of microprocesses.. 92
4.5. Elementary particles 93
4.6. The structure of the atomic nucleus ... 95
4.7. Nuclear processes 97
4.8. Prospects for the development of the physics of the microcosm... 100
Security questions ... 103
PART III. NATURAL-SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT 103
Chapter 5. CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE. 103
5.1. The essence of the concept of development.. 103
5.2. Evolution of the Universe.. 106
5.3. Structure of the Universe.. 109
5.4. Means of observation of objects of the Universe.. 111
5.5. The problem of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations.. 113
5.6. The solar system is part of the universe.. 114
5.7. Planet Earth solar system 118
Security questions .. 123
Chapter 6. EVOLUTION OF NATURAL SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SUBSTANCE 123
6.1. Development of chemical knowledge. 123
6.2. Management of chemical processes. 127
6.3. Synthesis chemical substances... 128
6.4. modern catalysis. 131
6.5. Formation of terrestrial and extraterrestrial substances.. 135
6.6. Natural resources of raw materials 136
6.7. Organic raw materials 141
6.8. New chemical elements and isotopes... 146
6.9. Promising chemical processes.. 149
6.10. Synthetics 153
6.11. Traditional materials with new properties 158
6.12. Promising materials... 162
Security questions ... 171
Chapter 7. BIOSPHERE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF MATTER 172
7.1. Fundamental life systems. 172
7.2. Balance of biochemical processes. 173
7.3. Carrier of genetic information. 174
7.4. Genetic properties 176
7.5. Proteins are the basis of living systems. 179
7.6. The structure and types of cells. 181
7.7. The modern idea of the origin of life ... 183
7.8. Background of the evolutionary idea 187
7.9. The evolution of life. 189
7.10. Plant and animal life... 197
7.11. Man is a phenomenon of nature. 203
7.12. Human life support 206
7.13. Extending the life of the body 213
7.14. Formation of the noosphere. 217
Security questions ... 218
PART IV. NATURAL-SCIENTIFIC BASES OF MODERN TECHNOLOGIES, ENERGY AND ECOLOGY. 219
Chapter 8. CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN TECHNOLOGIES AND ENERGY. 219
1.1. Development of technical means of information technology 219
8.2. Modern means of information accumulation 223
8.3. Multimedia systems and virtual world... 228
8.4. Micro- and nanoelectronic technologies 230
8.5. Laser technologies.. 236
8. 6. Modern biotechnologies 241
8.7. Gene technologies.. 242
8. 8. Problems of cloning... 244
Security questions ... 245
Chapter 9. NATURAL AND SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF ENERGY.
9.1. Modern idea of energy.. 246
9. 2. Conversion and consumption of energy.. 248
9.3. Efficiency of production and consumption of energy 250
9.4. Thermal power plants .. 251
9.5. ... 255
9.7 Solar energy... 258
9.8 Wind power 260
9.9. Nuclear power. 262
9.10. Features of the development of domestic energy 266
9.11. Energy of the oceans 267
9.12. Energy of the future. 269
Security questions ... 269
Chapter 10. NATURAL AND SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY.. 270
10.1. Global catastrophes and evolution of life... 270
10.2. Biosphere and prevention of ecological catastrophe.. 272
10.Z. Natural disasters and climate. 275
10.4. Greenhouse effect and acid precipitation 279
10.5. Preservation of the ozone layer.. 281
10.6. Water resources and problems of their conservation.. 283
10.7. Anergy consumption and our habitat. 285
10.8. Radioactive impact on the biosphere 286
10.9. Natural scientific problems of environmental protection.. 291
Security questions ... 292
Chapter 11. HARMONY OF WORK ACTIVITIES OF PEOPLE AND NATURE
11.1. Energy system upgrades 293
11.2. Industry, transport and environment 294
11.3. Cities and nature... 297
11.4. Solving recycling problems.. 300
11.5. Perspective materials, technologies and environment.. 304
Security questions ... 306
Conclusion.. 307
Glossary of special terms... 307
Name index ... 317
CONCEPTS MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
second edition,
corrected and supplemented
publishing house
"Academic Project" 2000
UDC50
BBC 20
K 26
REVIEWERS:
Department of Philosophy of the Financial Academy
under the Government of the Russian Federation
(head of the department prof. M.V. Vagliano)
and laureate of the USSR State Prize
in the field of science and technology, Dr. tech. Sciences,
prof. V.A. Shakhnov
Karpenkov S.Kh.
K26 Concepts of modern natural science: A textbook for universities. - M.: Academic Project, 2000. Ed. 2nd, rev. and additional - 639 p.
ISBN 5-8291-0085-1
The textbook is written in accordance with the State Educational Standard. It outlines the fundamental principles, laws, concepts and most important achievements of natural science, as well as highlights the natural science foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
For university students. It may be interesting and useful to a wide range of readers.
UDC50
BBC 20
ISBN 5-8291-0085-1
Karpenkov S.Kh, 2000
Academic Project, original-
layout, design, 2000
Dedicated to all those who
I would like to tell secrets
power and beautynature
Foreword
In modern society, much attention is paid not only to various branches of natural science, but also to rapidly developing high technology, energy and ecology. This textbook is devoted to the fundamental concepts of natural science and the natural scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
The textbook consists of four parts. In part I, the practical significance of natural science in modern society is substantiated and the main provisions of the natural-scientific knowledge of the world around are considered. Part II outlines the fundamental laws and concepts of natural science. Part III is devoted to the natural-science concepts of the development of processes in nature. Part IV deals with the natural science foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
The textbook material is presented at the level of concepts, i.e. taking into account the fundamental ideas and systems of views on the natural science issues under consideration. When presenting the material, simple mathematical expressions, formulas and terms known to schoolchildren were used. The natural scientific essence of the issues under consideration is presented in a visual and accessible form for a high school graduate.
The textbook is written according to the content teaching aids the author: "Basic concepts of modern natural science" (UNITI, 1998) and "Concepts of modern natural science: Practicum" (UNITI, 1998), as well as taking into account corrections, changes and additions to the material presented in the author's previously published textbook "Concepts of modern natural science" (UNITI, 1997).
The author expresses his gratitude to colleagues and reviewers whose comments and suggestions contributed to improving the quality of the book.
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the wise admonition of the Russian publicist Dmitry Pisarev (1840-1868): "You need to study at school, but you still need to study much more after leaving school."
The book is intended for students of higher educational institutions of full-time, evening and correspondence courses of economic, legal, philosophical, as well as specialties and specializations of management, sociology, technology, management, marketing, commodity science, tourism, business, finance, entrepreneurship, etc.
CONCEPTS OF MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
Finally, I give a hand to a truly useful science.
Horace
Introduction
Any person has curiosity at a very early age - a natural desire to know the world around him. “Curiosity is akin to a person, both enlightened and wild,” said the outstanding Russian historian and writer Nikolai Karamzin (1766-1826). With age, the unconscious desire to know the world around us gradually develops into a conscious form of curiosity - the desire to know the laws that govern nature, and how to apply them, allowing a person to foresee the possible consequences of his actions. The laws of nature and the methods of their application are the concentrated experience of mankind, which forms the basis of the practical activity of man, capable of protecting him from possible mistakes and failures and helping to achieve the desired goals. The concentrated experience of mankind is the fundamental and necessary basis of any educational process: a person must know how the most complex system functions - the nature of the Earth is his only home, to which he owes his birth and part of which he himself is.
Natural science is the science of the phenomena and laws of nature. Modern natural science includes many natural science branches: physics, chemistry, biology, as well as numerous related branches, such as physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry and many others. Natural science touches upon a wide range of questions about the numerous and multilateral manifestations of the properties of objects of nature, which can be considered as a whole.
If we set out in detail all the scientific material accumulated over a long period of time in all branches of natural science, then we get a huge tome, perhaps necessary, but of little use even for narrow specialists in the natural sciences, not to mention specialists in the humanities. The task of presenting the material of natural science is further complicated by the fact that its form should be accessible to future specialists, for whom natural science is not a discipline that forms professional knowledge.
To solve this problem, a generalizing philosophical approach is needed, taking into account advanced didactics methods based on the patterns of knowledge acquisition and the acquisition of skills and abilities. The essence of this approach lies in the presentation of natural science material at the level of concepts - fundamental ideas and systems of views. The conceptual systematic approach is useful not only for understanding the development of natural science itself and the phenomena and laws of nature studied by it, but also for getting acquainted with the most important achievements of natural science, on the basis of which modern science-intensive technologies are successfully developed that contribute to improving the quality of products and careful attitude to nature.
Many achievements of modern natural science, which form the basis for science-intensive technologies, are associated with a comprehensive study of objects and natural phenomena. With the involvement of modern technical means of experiment, it is precisely such a study that made it possible not only to create superstrong, superconducting, and many other materials with unusual properties, but also to take a fresh look at biological processes occurring within the cell and even within the molecule. Most branches of modern natural science are in one way or another connected with the molecular study of certain objects, which unites many natural scientists involved in highly specialized problems. The results of this kind of research are the development and production of new high-quality products, and above all consumer goods. In order to know at what price such products are given - the most important component of the economy, what are the prospects for the development of modern science-intensive technologies that are closely related to economic, social, political and other problems, fundamental natural science knowledge is needed, including a general conceptual understanding of molecular processes, on which the most important achievements of modern natural science are based.
Modern means of natural science - the science of fundamental laws, natural phenomena and various properties of natural objects - make it possible to study many of the most complex processes at the level of nuclei, atoms, molecules, and cells. The fruits of comprehension of true knowledge about nature at such a deep level are known to every educated person. Synthetic and composite materials, artificial enzymes, artificial crystals - all these are not only real objects of development of natural scientists, but also consumer products of various industries that produce a wide range of consumer goods. In this regard, the study of natural science problems at the molecular level within the framework of fundamental ideas - concepts - is no doubt relevant, useful and necessary for future highly qualified natural science and technical specialists, as well as for those whose professional activities are not directly related to to natural science, i.e. for future economists, management specialists, merchandisers, lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, journalists, managers, etc.
Recently, more and more often they are talking not about the chemical interaction of substances and an increase in their chemical activity, but about changing the structure of a molecule, about breaking the chain of molecules, about the interaction of molecular beams, about connecting fragments of DNA molecules, etc. In the lexicon of specialists and scientific commentators - Journalists are increasingly using the words “molecule”, “molecular structure”, etc. And this means that the modern level of natural science reflects an understanding of the phenomena occurring in nature, as well as the processes observed in laboratories, taking into account the structure and behavior of each molecule. It is thanks to this understanding that substances that did not previously exist in nature with fundamentally new properties are synthesized, and new machines, devices, products, etc. are created from them, high-quality varieties are grown cultivated plants, are being developed effective ways and remedies for diseases, etc.
At first glance, it may seem that this kind of knowledge is not needed at all, for example, by a future management specialist or a journalist. In reality, without them, a management specialist will not be able to choose a promising direction of his activity, because any business is somehow connected with a new material base and new technologies. Therefore, a management specialist, if he is a true specialist, must have deep and comprehensive knowledge. The same can be said about a journalist: without a deep understanding of the problem being commented on, a journalist is not able to correctly and in a popular form convey the most important scientific achievements to a wide range of readers. Without the necessary knowledge, a journalist can erroneously orient public opinion and provoke a biased decision, as happened, for example, with the unreasonable announcement of a temporary moratorium on genetic engineering (1975-1985).
It must be said that natural science knowledge with a conceptual understanding of the most important achievements of modern natural science is needed not only by future economists, lawyers, managers, entrepreneurs and other highly qualified specialists, but also by any educated person, regardless of the type of his activity.
Knowledge does not come by itself. One must work hard, study diligently, understanding freedom as a conscious necessity. “One must learn without being ashamed, and teach without being stingy,” the famous thinker Basil the Great (c. 330-379) said in ancient times, and only in this case can one hope for success.
Conclusion
Nature as an object of study of natural science is complex and diverse in its manifestations: it is constantly changing and is in constant motion. The circle of knowledge about it is becoming wider, and the area of its conjugation with the boundless field of ignorance turns into a huge blurred ring dotted with scientific ideas - the grains of natural science. Some of them, with their sprouts, will break through into the circle of classical knowledge and give life to new ideas, new natural scientific concepts, while others will remain only in the history of the development of science. They will then be replaced by better ones. Such is the dialectic of the development of natural-scientific knowledge of the surrounding world.
One can speak about nature as a subject of natural science in a strict scientific language. You can also say simple words about her that carry a deep meaning, as the German thinker and naturalist Johann Goethe did:
"Nature! Surrounded and engulfed by it, we can neither get out of it nor penetrate deeper into it... She captures us in the whirlwind of her dance and rushes with us until, weary, we fall out of her hands.
She always speaks to us, but does not reveal her secrets. We are constantly acting on it, but we have no power over it.
She is the only artist: from the simplest substance she creates the most opposite works, without the slightest effort, with the greatest perfection, and puts some kind of delicate veil on everything. She constantly thought and thinks constantly, but not like a person, but like nature, She has her own all-encompassing meaning ...
There are no number of her children. She is equally generous to everyone, but she has favorites, to whom she squanders a lot, sacrifices a lot. She takes the great under her protection.
Life is her best invention; death is for her a means to a greater life.
It surrounds man with darkness and drives him towards the light. Every act of hers is good, for everything is necessary; she tarries to be pursued; she hurries lest she be satiated.
She has no speeches and language, but she creates thousands of languages and hearts with which she speaks and feels. Her crown is love. Love only approaches her. With one touch of her lips to the cup of love, she atones for a whole life of suffering.
She is harsh and gentle, loves and terrifies, weak and omnipotent. Do not snatch a declaration of love from her, do not lure a gift from her, unless she voluntarily gives. As she creates, so you can create forever.
.