5.3 Development process The development process consists of activities and tasks performed by the developer. The process includes the activities of requirements analysis, design, programming, assembly, testing, commissioning and acceptance of software products. This process can

5.4 Operation process The operation process consists of the activities and tasks of the operator. The process covers the operation of the software product and user support during operation. Since the operation of the software product is included in the operation of the system, the work

6.4 Verification process The verification process is the process of determining that software products operate in full compliance with the requirements or conditions implemented in prior work. To evaluate the effectiveness of costs and work performed

6.7 Audit process The audit process is the process of determining compliance with the requirements, plans and terms of the contract. This process can be performed by any two parties involved in the contract, when one party (the auditor) checks the other party

7.1 Control process The control process consists of general activities and tasks that can be used by any party managing the associated process(es). The administrator is responsible for managing the product, project, work and tasks of the respective

7.3 Improvement process The improvement process is the process of establishing, evaluating, measuring, controlling and improving any software life cycle process. List of activities. This process consists of the following works: 1. creating a process; 2. grade

7.4 Learning process The learning process is the process of providing initial and continuing training to personnel. Order, delivery, development, operation and maintenance of software products largely depend on the qualifications of the staff.

8.1 Documentation process 8.1.1 General The documentation process should be carried out in two steps in the sequence shown in Figure 1 in the shaded boxes. Phased activities are not performed simultaneously. At certain stages of work,

4.4. Materials for embossing The decisive element in the appearance of your future product will, of course, be the material. Not only the color of the product depends on its correct choice, but also how smooth the contours will turn out, how embossed the surface will be, whether it will be possible

4.10. Bukhara coinage Ancient Uzbek metal utensils, decorated with elegant chased ornaments, can now be found mainly in museums. But once it was a necessary utensil of every Uzbek house. Any metal utensils had a strictly defined

4.11. Chasing machine As you have already noticed, chasing is a painstaking art. With a chased hammer, you need to hit the chase so that it squeezes out a line of the desired depth on the sheet of metal. The blow must be accurate so as not to break the pattern, and not strong so as not to break through the plate.

4.17. The use of artistic chasing At present, artistic chasing is used in the areas of serial or mass production, made by casting. Sometimes it can be a small study - underlining the relief, emphasizing individual elements with a flow,

Chasing is a method of artistic processing of metal, in which an image is applied to the workpiece in the form of a shallow relief, made using special tools with tips of various shapes.

The art of embossing has been known to mankind since ancient times, when skilled craftsmen made amazingly beautiful embossed bracelets, bowls, trays, and also belts from embossed plates. But gradually the coinage was replaced by other, easier-to-manufacture products. And only in the middle of the 20th century did the revival of this ancient arts and crafts begin.

The technology of chasing consists in drawing a picture or an inscription by knocking out a given image on a metal plate. Surprisingly beautiful products of ancient masters have survived to this day, which laid the foundations for the original chasing technique.

Today, chasing is an extensive section of the artistic processing of metals, which includes the manufacture of a variety of products: from round figured compositions to relief ornaments on a plane; from linear graphic drawings to three-dimensional volumetric sculptural products.

Chasing on metal is considered the most difficult type of chasing art, since in the process of working with a metal sheet, it becomes necessary to create a pattern and relief. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the texture and characteristics of the properties of each metal and to know the qualitative characteristics of all materials used.

materials

Previously, for the manufacture of chased products, precious metals - gold and silver - were most often used. Today, craftsmen prefer cheaper and more affordable types of metals.

Among the most common materials that are used for the manufacture of coinage are the following:

• Copper- chasing is performed on rolled metal sheets or plates with a thickness of 0.3 - 1.5 millimeters. Most often, sheets of copper of various grades are used. The ductility of copper, its malleability and ease of processing, as well as the beautiful reddish hues in various options always attracted masters. I must say that copper chased images always look just amazing, and will become a real decoration of the modern one.
• red copper- an exceptionally plastic and pliable material, widely used for the manufacture of coinage. The softness of copper allows you to give it various shapes and apply textured relief images. From red copper, you can make the thinnest sheets with a thickness of not more than 0.05 mm. High anti-corrosion properties make it possible to use copper embossing as elements of the exterior decoration of buildings.

• Brass- brands L96, L90 and L80. Brass is a copper-based alloy with the addition of zinc, the mass fraction of which can be up to 50%. Sometimes up to 10% of other components are added to the alloy - iron, aluminum, manganese and some other components. A distinctive quality of brass is beautiful golden-yellow shades of various tones, due to which craftsmen widely use this alloy for chased works.

Brass is easy to cut, polish and weld well different types solders. Embossed images are well applied to the brass sheet, although it is somewhat harder and inferior to copper in terms of plasticity.

• Red brass- a kind of brass alloy made with the addition of zinc (3 - 12%). The tombak is characterized by a reddish-yellow hue that looks great in art products. Most often, tompak is used to make badges, commemorative medals, high-quality jewelry, as well as decorative dishes, vases and candlesticks.

• Aluminum– in embossed works, aluminum foil of many grades is used, long time retaining its plastic qualities. In addition, aluminum products do not need to be heat treated.

Pure aluminum and various alloys based on it are very easy to mint, but require precautions during the annealing process. This is due to the fact that aluminum has a low melting point, and thin parts of the product can be deformed.

• tin- used for the first chased works due to the ease of processing and applying the image. Chasing on tin sheets is available even for beginners.

• Black metals- are steels of soft grades, with a low carbon content, from which decopier is obtained by preliminary annealing and pickling. From it you can perform different kinds products, both large relief and small decorative texture.
• roofing iron- used for the manufacture of the most simple decorative products. On sheet roofing steel, it is possible to produce embossing without deep drawing, to make contour drawings with lowering the background and applying textured images.
• Stainless steel- it's a very nice view modern material with improved anti-corrosion properties. However, chromium-nickel steel presents a certain difficulty in artistic processing due to the strength and density of its texture. Therefore, steel is difficult to mint. For the manufacture of artistic coinage, sheet steel 0.5 - 0.8 mm thick is used.
• Nickel alloys— in chased works cupronickel and nickel silver are often used, which are nickel-based alloys with the addition of copper. Moreover, the mass fraction of copper in them is quite significant (cupronickel contains 81% copper, and nickel silver - 65%).

That is why nickel alloys are ductile, perfectly polished, easily exposed to various types of finishes and take on various shades as a result of exposure to solutions of sodium hyposulfite and lead acetate.

With skillful surface treatment, these cheap materials can take on the appearance of ancient patinated bronze, or a shiny gold or sparkling silver surface.

All these metals and alloys easily take a given shape when knocked out and allow you to create any intended relief. When choosing one or another plate, you need to make sure that it must be of high quality. The sheet should not delaminate, have bubbles, potholes, spots and scratches.

Resin is used to perform chasing on resin substrates - pillows. Most often it is an artificial resin - bitumen, which is obtained by distillation of oil. Depending on the degree of viscosity, bitumen differs in numbers. For the manufacture of coinage, resins No. 4 and 5 are used.

For chemical treatment of the surface of a metal plate, the following types of reagents will be required:

• Hydrochloric acid
• Nitric acid
• Sulphuric acid
• Potash
• Sulphate copper

To give the metal a pleasant shade and make it lighter, quartz sand and pumice powder are used. Machine oil or kerosene is used to remove the resin and wipe the chased plate after chemical treatment.

Minting technique

As for the features of the technique of applying chased images, it has changed little since its invention. Typically, a metal sheet is placed on an elastic support made of lead or resin. On the reverse side, the master with the help of special tools knocks out the general pattern of the figures with a hammer, and then on the front side he applies contours and individual parts of the relief with a chasing.

Finished product processing

Drawing an image on a metal sheet is carried out in several stages, each of which has its own characteristic features:

I stage- creating a sketch of a drawing on sheet metal

II stage– execution of a chased image

Stage III- final finishing

Among the main types of finishing processing of chased products are the following:

• Grinding- used to remove all kinds of remaining irregularities and roughness from the surface of the finished product.
• Polishing- is performed to give the chased product a finished look, as well as to improve the anti-corrosion properties of the metal.
• Patination- is a type of processing of a chased product with chlorine or sulfur compounds.
• Painted brass and copper- allows you to color brass chasing in yellowish-brown tones. Dyed copper will be characterized by varying shades of orange, red, and deep red.
• Enameling- is a special staining method that is used for individual sections of the product or for small items. Enamel is a glass alloy that contains various color additives.
• Oxidation- a method of processing the surface of the coinage with special chemical reagents, with the help of which products can be given a different color from green to black, as well as protect the metal surface from corrosion.
• Touching- the process of driving the thinnest wires into the metal, which emphasize the boundaries of the pattern. This is the inlay of a metal sheet with another metal that is softer in structure and has a lower melting point.

Types of coinage

In the process of manufacturing chased products, craftsmen use several traditional types of drawing an image on metal, among which are the following:

• Openwork chasing- one of the most beautiful and spectacular types of chased art, which looks like real lace made on metal. First, with the help of special cuts, the background of the image is cut out, and then cutting is made along the same lines.

In this case, thin openwork metal partitions are obtained, which require especially careful handling during annealing so as not to melt them and not damage the texture of the product. Most often, openwork embossing is performed on finished volumetric objects as a finishing product.

• contour coinage- contour artistic embossing is performed on flat metal sheets without preliminary relief. In terms of its external qualities, contour embossing is very similar to engraving, but differs in that it can be convex and concave.

Contour chasing is used for various types of work, but most often this technique is used to decorate interior items and create expressive ornaments.

• - this type of chasing is considered more complex than the others due to the fact that the image is applied not to a flat sheet of metal, but to three-dimensional objects of various shapes. But for experienced masters - chasers, such a technique is not particularly difficult.

• - is also considered a complex type of artistic metal processing. First, a rough marking is made and the general contours of the image are knocked out, and then a clear contour relief is given to the product, and the forms are finally aligned and polished.

The final stage of work is the final embossing of the product, which is aimed at creating a complete look of the product.

The background and texture of embossed surfaces also play a huge role in giving the product extra shine. The combination of several ornaments made on matte and smooth surfaces, as well as a combination of other stylistic devices, looks very sophisticated.

Equipment and workplace

In a well-lit room of a small area, a small-sized table is installed - a workbench on which you can work on art.

• Table must be sustainable. It must be installed in such a way that daylight falls from the left. For work in the evening, in addition to general lighting, additional light sources must be equipped.

It can be a wall or pendant lamp, installed at a distance of 30 - 50 cm from the working surface of the table. Thus, the workplace will be illuminated evenly and correctly. The eyes of the master will not get tired, and on the surface of the future product there will be no sharp shadows that interfere with work.

• Vice, sharpener and other special devices are placed in places convenient for work, so that the master can easily reach them if necessary.
• Wardrobe or shelving are used to store tools, blanks, models, product samples and graphic sheets.

On the desktop, the tools and materials needed at the moment should be placed as conveniently as possible, because they should always be at hand for the master.

It is also necessary to remember that there is always clean and fresh air in the working room, therefore, the room must be periodically wet cleaned, dusted, and discarded unnecessary waste so as not to clutter up the working area.

You also need to follow the safety rules while working with various cutting tools and mechanical equipment.

To perform stamping work, you will also need special equipment:

• Small pitch pot
• Two canvas bags measuring 50 x 50 cm, filled with well-sifted and dried sand
• Bath for bleach solutions
• Wood shavings box for drying metal plates
• Electric stove for heating resin
• Blowtorch for annealing plates
• Blacksmith tongs for gripping a fired metal plate
• Scissors for cutting metal
• Locksmith's jigsaw (for openwork chased work)
• Rubber gloves for handling chemicals
• Canvas gloves for working with heated plates
• Scraper plate for straightening embossed plates

Only if all the equipment necessary for work is available, the master can start manufacturing highly artistic chased products.

Minting tools

The main tools of the master of chasing are various chasings, punches and special hammers - metal or wooden.

• Coins- these are special rods made of metal or having different sizes and special processing of the lower part, the so-called battle.

The length of the rod is 120 - 180 mm, depending on the section. Metal rods are usually thickened in the middle part, and their cross section is a tetrahedron. Such coinage is easy to hold in hand, it is convenient to work with them, because these design features eliminate the occurrence of vibrations in the process of striking a metal plate.

• Stichel- used for drawing a linear pattern on a metal plate. Engraving with a engraver is carried out directly by hand, without hammer blows.

A shtikhel can be made from a spring from an old mattress. To do this, cut off a piece of spring 80 - 100 mm long, heat it on fire, and then straighten it.

After that, the straightened end is again heated on fire, and flattened with a light hammer - this part will be the working part of the engraver. It is given the appearance of a dihedral or trihedral pyramid. To give additional strength, the engraver can be heated up again, and then a wooden handle can be placed on it.

• Wooden coinage— are applied to performance of large and deep relief images. They are also used to smooth out the background of a metal plate.

Wooden chasings are tetrahedral bars with a processed working part, similar in shape to the shape of metal chasings, but at the same time much larger.

• metal hammers- are used for knocking out various shapes on metal and for hitting chasing, so the hammer head often has a spherical shape on one side, and on the other - flat square or rounded outlines.
• wooden hammers- made from the same types of wood as the minted.
• Metal shears- needed for cutting thin metal sheets. Metal shears are more durable than ordinary shears. However, for small sheets with a thickness of 0.2 - 0.4 mm, medical scissors are used.
• Hacksaw- used for cutting metal.
• Files- are used for the manufacture and finishing of metal plates. They differ in the size of the notch. Files with a large notch are rasps, and those with a small notch are needle files. With their help, they perform various types of work on finishing large and small holes.
• Punch It is a small steel rod with a hardened end. It will be required to fix the plate on a wooden substrate.
• Measuring tools- folding rule, steel ruler, steel compasses, calipers, thickness gauge and square (metal or wooden).

Coinage styles

The high decorative properties of chased products allow master chasers to create new unique patterns in various styles, among which are the following:

• historical style
• Old Russian style
• Oriental style
• Georgian style
• Moroccan style
• Uzbek style
• Modern style
• Modern and many others.

Image Themes

The subject matter of engraved images can be very diverse and touch upon the most diverse spheres of human life and activity. Among the most common themes of images on coinage are the following:

• Depiction of literary and mythological heroes
• Genre and everyday scenes from people's lives
• landscape sketches
• Plots of fairy tales and legends
• The exploits of modern heroes
• Historical miniatures dedicated to famous events in world history
• Typical portrait and many more

Chased products

Among the variety of products decorated with a chased image, the following can be mentioned:

• Paintings on metal
• Interior decor elements
• Embossed fragments for wooden furniture
• Auto tuning details
• Forged tables with embossed surface
• Beds with chasing elements
• Chest of drawers decorated with wood carvings and embossing
• Panel from chasing
• Chased screens and columns
• Cornices with chased decor
• Embossed trays
• Artistic plates
• Fireplaces with embossed decor
• Braziers with chased elements

In addition, craftsmen can apply a chased image to almost any item, based on the individual wishes of the customer. So, individual products of author's chasing are suitable for decorating the interiors of apartments, country houses and, as well as elite restaurants and hotels.

Chasing has been known since ancient times. In this way, various household utensils were decorated, weapons and armor were decorated. Since ancient times, many peoples minted coins and created various jewelry.
Artistic products obtained by embossing for metal can be of various types - two-dimensional, ornamental, and even three-dimensional three-dimensional objects.

Artistic chasing looks very interesting in the interior of many styles, and it is no coincidence that there are so many craftsmen who are fond of producing chasing with their own hands, as well as art workshops where you can buy metal chasing, or where the necessary product will be made to order for you.

There are several directions of artistic chasing, while chasing for metal is the most complex view, since the relief of the product is created directly while working on it, and not in a pre-prepared form, as, for example, in the case of embossing by casting.

Types of coinage

Another subspecies is planar embossing performed on a metal sheet, without embossing the relief. This type of coinage is called contour. It looks a bit like engraving, but unlike it, the pattern of contour embossing is embossed, and can be either convex or concave.

With your own hands, at home, you can try to make such chasing on thin metal utensils, or, for example, on a tea can.

Materials and tools

Tools

All work on chasing metal products is done with the help of the main tool - chasing.
The chasers are forged octahedral or, sometimes, round rods, about 15 centimeters long, with thin edges.

There are several types of this tool.

Kanfarnik- is a coinage, with a pointed end, made in the form of a blunt needle.

Bypass coinage(consumables) - can be both straight and with a different radius of curvature.

Cuts- sharpened chases, somewhat reminiscent of an ordinary chisel. They can also have both a flat and a semicircular blade.

loshchatniki- a large group of flat-shaped chasings designed to level the background (burnishing). They can have smooth or rough eider to get a soft trail.

Of course, other auxiliary tools and devices will be needed for work: milk, substrates, various metalwork tools, grinding devices, and so on. By the way, there are also other types of coinage, we have mentioned only the most widely used of them.

It is impossible to talk about all the intricacies of metal chasing in one article, but fortunately for those who are interested in this topic, it will not be difficult to find books on chasing on the net.

materials

Copper
Red copper is the most convenient for minting, as it tends to easily take the necessary forms, and is able to provide a sufficiently large relief height. That is why copper chasing is the most common.
It is worth noting one more property of copper, namely its softness and elasticity during rolling, which makes it possible to create copper sheets with a thickness of less than half a millimeter.

Aluminum
Another material used for artistic chasing on metal. It has good ductility, does not require heat treatment.
Aluminum foil is easy to mint, allows deep drawing and the ability to correct errors made during operation, but you should be vigilant when annealing it, since aluminum has a fairly low melting point.

roofing iron
For the manufacture of simple products, at home, some craftsmen use sheet roofing iron, which allows you to perform simple artistic patterns without deep drawing.

Stainless steel
It is used extremely rarely, more suitable for the manufacture of fairly large decorative items, and not very suitable for minting, since the metal has great strength and toughness.

Nickel alloys
Nickel alloys with a high percentage of copper are also used for minting. The most common of them are nickel silver and cupronickel.
These alloys are quite plastic and easily take the desired shape, besides, they are well polished.

Manufacturing technology

Next, a sketch is applied to the workpiece, after which it is transferred to the workpiece with a dotted pattern, using a kanfarnik.
It is worth remembering that, since too strong a blow to the coinage will lead to a through punching of the sheet, and therefore all the work will go down the drain, the blank should be minted with caution. Be careful and don't overdo it.
Then, the "scanned" pattern is outlined with consumables, which are selected depending on the required configuration of the lines.

When the drawing is transferred, it is necessary to lower the background and align it around the pattern. To do this, horseshoes are used.
The polishing process makes the embossed pattern more clear and expressive, besides, the polishing of the embossing makes it more durable.

After the product is annealed.
To do this, the product is slightly heated with a flame of a gas or gasoline burner and removed from the resin.
Then the coinage is heated to a red-hot state (red heat) and cooled.

The annealing of the coinage and the cooling process depend on the material used to make it. So some materials require rapid cooling, while other metals require gradual cooling.
For example, for copper, nickel, and / or their alloys, a sharp cooling is necessary, which increases the plastic properties of these metals, but aluminum or its alloys are annealed at a temperature not exceeding 350 degrees Celsius and cooled gradually without removing from the furnace.

After the first annealing, the surface of the relief of the coinage is raised, the so-called "drill". The relief is minted from the wrong side of the product, using all kinds of soft substrates (a bag of sand, a rug made of rubber or felt, etc.).
At the same time, step by step, the background of the product is leveled with the help of burnishers.
Then the workpiece is annealed again and finalized on the resin.

Chasing is ready! It remains to remove the finished product from the resin, pickle, and process, if you wish, in any way available to you - galvanically, mechanically or chemically.

Preface 3
What is coinage 5
Art that came from the depths of vecos 7
What is needed for minting 10
Metals used in coinage 30
Chaser's workplace 11
Chasing tools 12
Rules for the safe work of a chaser 18
Preparing a drawing and transferring it to metal 18
Metal-plastic 21
Flat-relief embossing 26
Relief chasing 28
Chasing bulk products 36
Ornamental punch chasing 37
Perforated coinage 40
Notched (Bukhara) chasing 41
Basma 43
Difovka 45
Artistic finishing of chased products 46
Glossary 51

FOREWORD

Chasing is a wonderful kind of artistic metal processing. Today, embossed products are widely used in everyday life, in the decoration of the interiors of public buildings, they can often be seen at various exhibitions of fine and decorative arts.
Both adults and schoolchildren in circles or independently are engaged in chasing with the same enthusiasm.
After reading it, you will find out how fascinating the process of minting itself is, when a relief image appears on a clean and smooth sheet of metal, obeying the will and imagination of the minter. This exciting process can be compared to the process of developing a photograph, during which an image gradually appears on a completely blank sheet of paper.
Chasing classes will make your leisure time interesting and useful. Studying in a circle at a school or the Palace of Pioneers, you can make many beautiful and useful things for home and school, decorate the interior of the school, tastefully decorate the pioneer room, the Museum of Military Glory. Such work will help you feel the joy of collective and useful work, and will teach you to respect the work of your comrades.
Being engaged in embossing, you will learn what metals are suitable for embossing, what tools are needed and how to make them, get acquainted with the types of embossing and learn how to design finished works. Master the drawing, master the basics of knowledge about the composition of decorative art, develop your creative imagination and aesthetic taste, learn to see and understand works of art, understand their figurative language.
But that's not all: chasing will teach you how to feel and work with metal, you will gain skills in working with many tools. These skills and abilities will be useful in the future, regardless of who you become, what profession you choose.
According to the main directions of the reform of general education and vocational schools, by the time they graduate from incomplete secondary school, students should be ready for a conscious choice of profession and educational institution to continue education, and by the end of high school - to master a certain profession.
Those of you who are seriously interested in coinage can choose the profession of a coiner. It is possible to improve knowledge in this profession in art institutes, schools, etc. vocational schools, which have a specialty "artistic metal processing". But for this you need to study well and be able to draw well.
As you can see, chasing is not only an interesting activity, but also very useful. Therefore, carefully read this book and get down to the practical development of coinage for metal. It is best to do this in a circle under the guidance of a knowledgeable and skilled specialist.

WHAT IS CHINTING

Chasing is the process of obtaining a convex image on the surface of a metal plate.
Chasing has several varieties: flat-relief, ornamental-punching, perforated, Bukhara, basma, difovka.
Metal-plastic is somewhat different from these types of coinage.
Metal-plastic appeared in the last century. This is one of the simplest and most affordable type of artistic metal processing. The technique of metal plastics is that the bas-relief image on a thin sheet of metal is squeezed out with special spatulas, the so-called crushers.
Products from metal-plastic can have the widest application. They can decorate a waist belt and a bag, a pencil case and a jewelry box, a shelf and an album cover.
Metal plastic is available to any student. Being engaged in metal-plastic, you will get acquainted with some properties of sheet metals, acquire skills in working with scissors for cutting metal, learn to see and understand the beauty of artistically processed metal.
Flat-relief chasing is characterized by the fact that its relief does not have a detailed study, it is almost flat, as if in silhouette. This technique can be used to make wall panels of any size, plaques, decorative plates with floral or geometric patterns to decorate pencil cases, caskets, shelves, photo frames.
Performing flat-relief chasing, you will get acquainted with the ornament and learn how to compose it, you will be able to transfer a pattern to metal, mint on metal, that is, you will get all the skills that will help you move on to the next, more complex type of chasing - embossed.
Relief embossing differs from flat-relief embossing in that the image on it protrudes significantly on the background surface and has sufficient detail; each detail of the sculptural image or ornament is clearly, carefully, relief outlined. This technique is quite complex and requires patience and attention from the performer. But having mastered relief chasing, you will be able to perform a wide variety of works: still lifes, portraits, decorative panels, thematic compositions based on fairy tales. It can be used to decorate wall newspapers, stands, a pioneer room, etc.
One of the interesting varieties of coinage is ornamental-punching. It is purely applied. She makes small things and only of an ornamental nature: brooches, pendants, bracelets, tiaras, hairpins, buckles. In addition, you can make decorations for the album cover, pencil case cover and jewelry box, photo frames.
Although the technique of perforated coinage (or perforated iron, as it is also called) is quite simple, it can be used to create many beautiful and interesting things. Perforated chasing is one of the most popular types of artistic metal processing in Russian arts and crafts. Its distinctive feature is that the image on it is not convex, as in relief embossing, but flat and silhouetted with a carved background. This technique can be used to make decorations for caskets, caskets, pencil cases, shelves, chests, window frames, doors, etc. Perforated embossing is used to decorate architectural structures, household items, it is used in the design of parks.
Notched (Bukhara) chasing resembles metal engraving in terms of the technique of execution. An ornament is applied to any product, which consists of small grooves. This technique can be used to make decorative plates for decorating album covers, boxes, shelves, etc.
Recently, another type of coinage, basma, has become widespread. This is the name of embossing or punching a relief image from sheet metal on a matrix. Distinctive feature it is the ability to produce a large number of completely identical products. Most often, this technique is used for wall decorative plaques.
Basma is a rather complex type of coinage. Its difficulty lies in the manufacture of a matrix of metal. Basma can be done by someone who already has the skills of locksmith work.
The most complex and time-consuming type of coinage is d and f o v k a. This technique produces a round, three-dimensional sculpture. A well-known sculptural group by V. Mukhina "Worker and Collective Farm Girl", installed at VDNKh in Moscow, can give a vivid idea of ​​the possibilities of divination.
It will be very difficult for a young chaser to do anything in this technique alone. But together, with the whole circle, you can create sculptural images of animals, animals, even life-size. They can decorate the school park or garden.

ART THAT COME FROM THE TIMES

Having learned how to extract and process metal, our distant ancestors, creating various products from it, sought to ensure that these products were not only useful and practical, but also beautiful. It was then that many types of artistic metal processing began to emerge, including chasing. This is evidenced by numerous archaeological finds discovered during excavations of ancient monuments of material culture in Egypt and Mexico, India and Iran, China and Greece. So, the ancient Greek masters in the VIII century BC. e. using the diphka technique, they created statues of remarkable beauty, which decorated squares, temples and public buildings.
Coinage was greatly developed in Western Europe during the Renaissance. The Middle Ages were a period of unprecedented rise in the art of coinage in Central Asia. And today in such countries as Morocco, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and others, metal chasing, along with carpet weaving, ranks first among all types of folk crafts.
Many metal household items and decorations found during excavations of mounds and Slavic settlements indicate that among the ancient Slavs and other peoples who once inhabited the territory of our country, there were many excellent master chasers, whose works are today an adornment of the largest museums. Already in the XII century. in ancient Russia, such a type of coinage as basma appeared - embossing a thin sheet on a wooden or bronze matrix. The material for the manufacture of various chased products was gold, silver
r n red copper. Chasing decorated clothes, household and church utensils, weapons and armor of warriors (color insert 1). Many surviving items of Russian antiquity can give a vivid idea of ​​the high skill of chasers, such as: silver lining on the helmet of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, ritual vessels-craters from the Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral and others. The chased works of the masters of that time amaze with their compositional harmony and completeness, extraordinary plasticity, and high technique of execution.
The art of chasing in Russia reached a new height in the 15th-17th centuries (color insert 2). In their works, Russian masters combined the most diverse types of chasing: perforated, flat with a lowered background, high-relief, and three-dimensional.
In the 18th century, St. Petersburg, the Urals and the North Caucasus became centers of artistic metalworking. So, in St. Petersburg, such a wonderful type of coinage as difovka began to develop - knocking out a three-dimensional sculpture from sheet metal. Outstanding monuments of Russian culture were the sculptural groups created by S. Pimenov and V. Demut-Malinovsky for the arch of the General Staff and the Alexandrinsky Theater (now the Leningrad Academic Drama Theater named after A. S. Pushkin), as well as many other remarkable works of Russian sculptors. In the Urals and the North Caucasus, the chasing of various vessels and weapons became widespread (color insert 3).
Over time, hand-made artistic chasing was gradually replaced by stamping, which significantly reduced both its originality and originality, and interest in it as an art form.
The revival in Soviet times of monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture, made in the difka technique, falls on the 30s - 40s and is associated with the names of the outstanding Soviet sculptors S. Merkurov and V. Mukhina. The sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Girl" (sculptor V. Mukhina), completed in 1937, crowned the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris (now installed at the USSR Exhibition of Economic Achievements in Moscow). It has become a kind of symbol of the world's first state building communism, the free and heroic labor of the Soviet people.
The interest of Soviet artists in this type of sculpture is constantly growing, thanks to which our art has been enriched and continues to be enriched by many new remarkable works. Suffice it to name such works as: a monument to V. I. Lenin (sculptors A. Stepankov and Yu. Pommer) at the plant. Likhachev in Moscow, a monument to David Sasunsky (sculptor E. Kochar) in Yerevan, a statue of "Worker" (sculptors I. Brodsky, M. Altshuller and D. Narodnitsky) at the Volgograd hydroelectric power station. XXII Congress of the CPSU, the Victory monument (sculptor Z. Tsereteli) at the Glory Memorial in Tbilisi and many others.
Of particular interest is the work of Georgian and Baltic chasing masters, who create magnificent works that are distinguished by high craftsmanship and delicate taste.
The works of Georgian chasers, representing mostly decorative panels, have a lively temperament. They are made in the traditional national manner and testify to the virtuoso mastery of the widest range of techniques.
From jewelry in combination with enamel, coral and amber to large panels for interiors, which reflect the themes of our time - such is the diversity of the creative interests of the masters of chasing the Baltic republics. Often the chasing in their performance acquires new interesting artistic qualities due to the carved background, which makes the work more voluminous.
The thematic range of modern coinage is extremely diverse and wide (color insert 4). Still life, portrait, genre scenes, fairy tale and historical plots (Fig. 1), images of animals, animals and birds - this is not a complete list of topics that are reflected in the works of modern engravers.

WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR MINING

Metals used in coinage

For stamping works, soft sheet metals with a thickness of 0.2 to 0.5 mm are used, which have plasticity, toughness, and the ability to easily change shape. We will now get acquainted with the properties and characteristics of these metals.
Aluminum is a silver-white metal, due to its softness and ductility, it can be easily processed by embossing, allows deep drawing. By
compared to other metals, it does not harden so quickly. However, an aluminum product is difficult to tint.
Copper is the most commonly used metal. The color is rose red. It is well forged, stretches, allowing you to make a drift of high relief, well polished. However, the shine disappears rather quickly, copper oxidizes, becoming covered with a green film. This metal is quickly hardened, which makes it brittle and brittle, so it must be periodically annealed. Copper products can be tinted in a variety of colors.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Color - yellow, golden. Brass is somewhat harder than copper, but some of its grades lend themselves well to chasing and cold stamping. It is well tinted, polished and retains its shine for quite a long time.
Roofing iron is more difficult to process than other metals, and therefore is more suitable for compositions with generalized forms, without excessive detailing. It is an excellent material for perforated, openwork chasing.
Mild stainless steel is viscous and ductile, well-diffused and easily amenable to other types of machining. Its color is silvery and shiny.
Decapir - mild carbon steel, annealed and pickled in acid. It is used to create large decorative panels. Steel lends itself to tinting worse, but it is well polished. It rusts in water and in moist air. Therefore, it is recommended to store steel products in dry rooms and cover them with a protective film of varnish.

Chaser's workplace

Metal chasing does not require a special room and special equipment. You need a solid table or workbench on which you could freely place a plate for straightening products, a vice and tools.
At the table, it is better to work while standing, not bending too much. The height of the table should correspond to the height of the chaser. You can mint sitting. In this case, it is desirable to have a chair with a mechanism for adjusting the height of the seat.
The table should stand so that the light falls on it from right side. Under artificial lighting, an electric light bulb should be with a light-protective cap, fixed so that the light does not blind the eyes, but illuminates only the table.
The coins can be stored on a special stand, which is easy to make yourself. In a thick board (40 ... 60 mm) approximately 400X150 mm in size, a nest 30 ... 40 mm deep corresponding to its diameter is drilled for each coinage separately. The coins on such a stand are placed with the working end up in a certain order, in the same place. You won't have to waste time looking for a tool if you train yourself to put the tool you work with with your left hand on the left, and with your right hand on the right of the plate on which you mint.
The main tools of a chaser are a hammer and chasers.
A hammer (Fig. 2) is perhaps the main and most frequently used tool by a chaser. Has a special shape. One end of it is intended for strikes on the chasing and leveling (straightening) of the metal. Should be wide enough to avoid misses on the coinage, flat, with rounded edges, round or square. The other end of the hammer has a spherical spherical shape and serves to punch out relief on sheet metal. For chasing directly with a hammer, hammers are made with a special shape of strikers (Fig. 3). Careful care is needed for the working surface of the hammer, it must be smooth, polished, since dents, grooves, irregularities will be imprinted on the metal being processed and spoil the product.
Special requirements apply to the hammer handle. It is flat, curved, rounded at the end (see Fig. 2). Thanks to this shape, the hammer handle is comfortable to hold in your hand.
The hammer, both ends of which are spherical (Fig. 3), has straight handles. The handles are made of solid non-layered wood (birch, maple, ash, beech, hornbeam). It is advisable to put the finished, already polished handle for 8 ... 10 hours in linseed oil, drying oil or varnish, then dry.
The mass and size of the hammer must correspond to the physical data of the chaser. If the tool is too light, the chasing process will proceed slowly, and many unnecessary, unproductive blows will have to be applied to the metal, which will lead to rapid fatigue. Hands will quickly get tired when working with a heavy tool.
Mallet - a wooden hammer - its shape resembles a metal hammer. It is made of solid non-layered wood species (beech, maple). It is used for straightening a metal plate, leveling the background and when working with wooden chasers.
Chasing is a steel rod 120 ... 180 mm long with a different, depending on the purpose, shape and area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe working surface of the battle. According to the shape of the working surface, the coinage is divided into several main groups.
Kanfarnik (Fig. 4, a) - the coinage has the shape of a rounded needle. When struck on soft metal, it leaves a round dot - a dent. Depending on the size of the work, kanfarniki with different battles are used. For small and jewelry work, sharp chases are used, for large ones - more blunt, with a larger working surface of the battle. Kanfarniks are used to transfer the pattern from paper to metal and to finish the background with small dented dots (this process is called “shotting”),
A consumable or bypass coinage (Fig. 4, b, c) - the shape of the battle looks like a blunt chisel. It serves to work out and reproduce on the metal the contour of the pattern in the form of an uninterrupted line along the trace marked in front of this campfire. A sharp consumable gives a thin and clear line, a blunt (thick) one - soft and wide. In addition to straight consumables intended for drawing straight lines, consumables with working ends in the form of an arc with different radius of curvature are used; they encircle curved lines.
Loshchatnik (Fig. 4, d, e) - coinage with a flat chisel in the form of a circle, square, rectangle, triangle, oval. Its edges are slightly rounded so that during operation they do not leave dents on the metal. Serves for leveling and upsetting the background, other flat surfaces.
Corrugated or patterned embossing in appearance resembles a hammerhead, only its working part is not smooth, but corrugated, patterned in the form of stripes, spikes, nets, pits. Chasing is used to give the background a textured or matte surface.
Puroshnik (Fig. 4, h) - coinage with a round spherical shape of the chisel. It is used for punching semicircular shapes and bulges. They can also give the background a "pitted" texture.
Boboshnik (Fig. 4, i) - a coinage with an oblong, oval (bean-shaped) working end.
The pipe maker (Fig. 4, j) is a coinage with a concave hemispherical working part of various depths and diameters. Leaves convex spherical prints on metal.
A cut (Fig. 5, a) is a chisel, the working part of which is sharpened and rounded so that its edges do not leave marks when cutting curved lines. With the help of a cut, thin linear drawings are applied to the metal or the background is cut (cut through) in cut or openwork embossing.
Rice. 5. Chasings: a - cut; b - boot; c - hook; g - ratchet.
A boot (Fig. 5, b) is a special coinage for obtaining bulges along the edges of the relief, which hang over the background and give the relief a greater volume.
Hook, ratchet (Fig. 5, c, d) - special coinage with different strikes for working in hard-to-reach places when knocking out hollow vessels from the inside, for example, jugs.
A punch is a figured coinage, on the working part of which fragments of an ornament (a leaf, a flower, a curl, a rhombus) are made with the help of chisels, chisels, and a drill (Fig. 16). Used to decorate the background or ornament.
All of the above stamps are made from tool steel grade U7 or U8.
Wooden chasing - a tetrahedral bar made of hard wood (oak, beech, maple, birch) of various sizes, depending on the nature of the work. They are much larger in size than metal ones. The working part of the wooden chasing is made like a metal one, carefully leveled and polished with an emery cloth. They are used for upsetting excessively convex sections of the relief and leveling the background. Hitting the wooden coinage should be done with a wooden mallet.
Scriber for metal (Fig. 6, a) is used to mark the metal and transfer the pattern to it. The line drawn by it is not wiped off. It is more accurate and much thinner than a line drawn with a pencil.
The pressure gauge (Fig. 6, b) has a bent shape with a rounding at the working end. It is used to extrude pattern contours on thin or soft metals. They don’t hit the crusher with a hammer, but, holding it in their hands and pressing it against the metal with force, they lead it to themselves, squeezing out the outline of the drawing.
Files and needle files for smoothing the edges of the coinage and removing burrs from them. It is enough for a chaser to have 2 - 3 files with different notches. A set of needle files will come in handy when working in the perforated embossing technique.
Locksmith scissors are required with spring handles.
A jigsaw cuts out the background or individual details in relief and perforated embossing.
Holes are punched with a punch.
Locksmith pliers are needed in order to bend the edges and corners when grinding the plate. Pliers or pincers hold the plate over the fire during annealing.
In addition to these tools, the chaser also needs some devices.
The vise serves to clamp ratchets in them when chasing hollow products. A vice will also be required for the manufacture of chasings and other tools.
A bag of sand is used to knock out relief in the initial stage of work. It is made of durable tarpaulin, sewn in several layers, and filled with sand.
Sheet rubber is used to work out individual, mostly large, relief sections. Felt is used for the same purpose.
Steel plates serve to level the background, its precipitation in flat-relief embossing.
To tint products, you will need plastic trays, and for cooking resin - deep dishes.
All tools and accessories can be purchased in art salons, shops " Young Technician”, “Uchtekhpribor”.
Separate coinage (metal and wooden) can be made by schoolchildren on their own under the guidance of a teacher of labor training in school workshops. If there is no tool steel, reinforcing bars of various sections are used. Thanks to the corrugated surface, they are comfortable to hold in your hand.
The procedure for making stamps is as follows. To make the steel softer and more pliable, it must be released, that is, heated to a temperature of 500 ... 600 ° C, followed by cooling. Then, with a hacksaw or on a lathe, cut off a workpiece 120 ... 180 mm long. In order to give the working part of the coinage the necessary shape, the workpiece is first processed on an emery wheel or a file (in this case, the workpiece is clamped in a vise), and then it is finally finished with needle files, engravers, processed with emery cloth and polished on a felt wheel with GOI paste.
Then the coinage is tempered. To do this, its working part is heated to a bright red color (about 800 ° C) and immersed in water or oil (depending on the steel grade). Hardened in this way, the coinage becomes brittle and may crumble during operation. To avoid this, take a vacation. The working part of the coinage is polished to a shine and heated again to a temperature of 200...220°C. When a yellow color appears on the shiny part, the heating is stopped and the coinage is allowed to cool.
The upper part of the coinage, which is struck with a hammer, is not tempered. This is done so that the coin does not spring and vibrate during operation, and the hammer does not bounce off it.
And here is how you can make a coinage with a rough surface of the battle, which can serve to give some area of ​​the coinage a matte (rough) surface. Before the coinage is hardened, a file with the necessary notch is placed on its working surface and the file is struck with a heavy hammer. The trace of the file remains on the coinage. After that, the coinage is tempered.
Patterned chasings with a complex pattern can be made from steel wire. First, the wire 7 is annealed, the necessary curl is bent with the help of round-nose pliers, it is bitten off from the main wire and hardened. They work with such a coinage like this: they put it on metal,
put a wide stalker on top and hit it with a hammer. A deep imprint of a curl remains on the metal.
Rules for the safe work of a chaser
Before you start chasing, you should familiarize yourself with some rules for safe work.
In the process of working on embossing, one has to use many tools and perform various metal work: cutting, chopping, filing, bending and flanging. It must be remembered that a serviceable tool is the key to safe and successful work.
The hammer must be firmly seated on the handle.
The working surface of the hammer heads and chasings must be smooth.
Metal shears need to be sharp enough that they do not "chew" the metal, but cut it easily, leaving smooth edges.
The chisel must always be sharp in order to smoothly cut sheet metal without much effort.
Having cut out the blank for chasing, you should file its corners and edges with a file, on which burrs remain.
When working with scissors that are clamped in a vice, it is recommended to wear a canvas glove on the left hand that holds or feeds metal.
When cutting, working on an emery wheel with an electric drive, biting off the wire with wire cutters, you need to wear safety glasses.
The part being processed with files or needle files should be clamped in a vise, in no case should it be held in hands.
When finished, wash your hands thoroughly with warm water and soap.

PREPARATION OF THE DRAWING AND TRANSFER IT TO METAL

Every student can master the technique of chasing. However, in order to become a real master-chaser and create your own works, you need to be able to draw well. It is best to learn ego in drawing lessons, in a fine art circle.
At first, those who cannot draw can use ready-made drawings from books and magazines. You can redraw and enlarge them using well-known cells. To begin with, it is best to choose drawings with simple geometric and floral ornaments. Further, as you gain experience, you can move on to complex ornaments, still lifes, then to the image of birds, animals, and, finally, to compositions depicting people.
You can not blindly copy any drawing. Each drawing chosen for chasing must be generalized, given a decorative character, that is, minor minor details should be eliminated, and the most basic and characteristic ones should be preserved. This is required by the specificity of the chased image and the plastic possibilities of the metal, which is not characterized by fine workmanship of all the details visible to the eye. For example, a lamb should be depicted on your coinage. No matter how hard you try, you will never be able to mint, depict on the metal every single hair of it. And is it necessary? What is characteristic of lamb wool? Curls of course! Here is the way out. It is enough to depict the wool of your lamb with large (even stylized) curls and it will become clear to everyone that there is a lamb in front of him on the coinage. You can also show bird feathers, plant leaves and so on on the coinage.
When choosing a drawing, you need to remember that each work made in the technique of chasing must tell something, carry a semantic and ideological load.
The drawing is performed in full size on a sheet of medium-weight paper with small margins. The drawing is done with one contour line. Recessed areas and the background can be slightly shaded.
When the drawing on paper is completed, a plate of the appropriate size is prepared for chasing. It is cut out with metalwork scissors so that the drawing fits on it and there are still fields 20 ... 30 mm wide on all sides. These fields are necessary in order to more firmly fix the plate on the resin. Then the workpiece is annealed, if it is hard, and carefully leveled with a mallet on a steel plate. After that, degrease
gasoline or acetone and cover on one side with a layer of white watercolor paint or gouache.
Now you can start translating the drawing. Copy paper is placed on the platform, a drawing is placed on it,
which is glued along the edges to the metal with soap or plasticine. The drawing is outlined in pencil. Then the sheet stops
gently removed from the plate. The image on the workpiece is covered with nitro-lacquer.
The drawing may not be fixed, but immediately scratch its contours with a scriber and wash off the paint from the plate.
Multi-functional compositions are best translated into metal by shotting. In this case, the drawing without carbon paper in the hand is placed directly on the plate and glued to it with plasticine or soap. After that, all the contour lines of the drawing are worked out with a chasing-can-farnik, applying frequent dots along them. When the patterned paper is removed, the pattern is clearly visible on the metal.
To transfer the pattern to three-dimensional products (bowls, jugs), a paper scan is made: a pattern is applied to a paper tape and transferred to a three-dimensional form.
After the drawing is fixed on the plate, it is possible to start shotting: dotted lines are applied along the contour of the drawing with a chaser. On small-sized coinage, the drawing is cut with frequent dots with a sharp cutter, on large ones, the contours of the pattern are worked out with more rare strokes with a thicker cutter. Canfaring should be done with light hammer blows, uniform in strength, so as not to pierce the metal. It is important to avoid deep capfaration, the traces of which cannot be removed later.
Kanfarnik, like all coinage, is held in the left hand between the thumb, index and middle fingers, without straining (Fig. 7). The hand with the chasing must necessarily rest with free fingers on the plate.
And one more important detail: in the process of chasing, you need to look only at the worked section of the plate and the lower end of the chasing. This makes it easier to keep track of your work.
If the metal is soft, you can do without capfaration. Then outline the contours of the drawing with a crusher. A soft lining made of rubber, felt or a board made of soft wood (linden, aspen) is placed under the plate. The tool is clamped in the right hand, and the plate is held with the left and the index finger, resting against the pressure gauge, guides it. It is easier to do this work with a crusher
with a long handle that rests on the shoulder. However, this requires a certain force, so it is better for younger students to cappour the drawing.

METALLOPLASTICS

Metal-plastic (metal extrusion) is an affordable, simple and easily digestible type of artistic metal processing that does not require great physical strength. The most important conditions for successful practice of metalloplastics are accuracy, attentiveness and consistency in work.
To practice metal-plastic, it is necessary to have small hand-held metal scissors, a light hammer, a punch and several crushers of various widths: a chisel (Fig. 8, a), a stack (Fig. 8, b) and two or three spatulas (Fig. 8, c, G). The working ends of the pressure gauges should be well polished on a felt wheel with GOI paste so that during operation they easily slide over the metal without scratching it. The length of the working part of the crusher is 500 mm, the length of the wooden handle is 120 ... 130 mm.
Pressers, especially spatulas, can be made of durable plastic or hardwood (oak, hornbeam, beech, maple). For extrusion on a harder metal, it is necessary to make several pressure gauges with a long handle of about 400 ... 500 mm. When squeezing out, the presser handle rests against the shoulder, greatly facilitating the work.
To give the background the necessary texture, several punches with various notches can be used (Fig. 8, e). To perform work in the metal-plastic technique, sheet metal 3 ... 6 mm thick or textolite can be used as a solid lining; lining of medium hardness can be made of linoleum, cardboard; soft lining can be felt or cloth. The size of the lining should be somewhat larger than the size of the plate prepared for work.
The best materials for metal-plastic are aluminum and copper with a thickness of about 0.1 mm. If the metal is somewhat stiff, it should be released.
The extrusion plate should be slightly larger than the object to which the finished work is supposed to be attached. It is cut out in such a way that a free field 10 ... 20 mm wide remains on all sides.
Rice. 8. Tools for metal-plastics: a - chisel: b - stack; c, d - spatula; d - stamp-punch.
The edges of the prepared plate are treated with an emery cloth or a personal file, and the plate itself is cleaned of dirt. Then they put it on a solid lining (for example, a metal plate) and carefully level it with a wide spatula, which they drive over the plate until the bumps and bumps disappear.
Now you can transfer the drawing to the plate. How to do this is described in the section “Preparing a drawing and transferring it to metal”.
If you need to do a little work, you can immediately start extruding. When the work is larger, then, in order not to erase the drawing by hand, it is covered with varnish or glue. The layer must be very thin, otherwise the presses will slide over the plate.
So, the drawing is transferred to the plate. It is placed on a lining of linoleum and with the help of a graver, the outline of the pattern is outlined. The shtichel is taken in the right hand so that thumb lay on the upper end of the handle, and the remaining four fingers tightly covered it (Fig. 9). They lead them along the contour of the drawing not with a point, but with a curved part.
At the same time, the index finger of the left hand presses on the middle of the metal part of the tool, helping the right hand with this, and at the same time does not allow the engraver to leave the contour. The remaining fingers of the left hand attach the plate and, if necessary, turn it. Stichel
must keep the same position for a while. The direction of its movement should be constant, in the same direction - to the right and towards itself. It is necessary to ensure that the applied force is always the same, and the extruded line is uniform.
the plates will be somewhat harder, you should not put too much pressure on it. It is better to run the engraver over it several times, but lightly, without pressure. Then, on a metal plate, a background is pressed with a wide spatula around the resulting image (Fig. 10, a).
Now the plate is turned over to the other side. On a solid lining inside the pattern, very close to the convex contour, a second line is drawn with a chisel so that a contour is obtained in the form of a double line. This gives the edges of the picture a sharper outline. The plate is again turned face up. On it, once again, they press and level the background of the picture. Then the plate is placed with the wrong side up on a soft lining and now the relief of the pattern is squeezed out in stacks. They do this so that there are no traces left on the metal from each individual movement of the stack.
To make the surface of the image smooth, the relief should be deepened in parts. To do this, the entire drawing can be conditionally divided into 6 - 7 parts. The stack is led from the middle of the image to the edge. Moreover, at the edge, the pressure on the stack is weakened. After extruding the next section, the plate is turned upside down with the front side and leveled again with a spatula. By repeating the process of deepening and leveling several times, we obtain the desired relief (Fig. 10, b).
The drawing is almost ready. It remains to work out the details. To do this, the plate is placed face up. Very carefully, evenly deepen the necessary places with a chisel and spatula. It should be noted! ”that in metal-plastic, not all edges should be separated from the background. The edges are secondary
nyh details in plot compositions can barely stand out, or even smoothly move into the background. Now finally you need to align the background stacks.
The background can be slightly worked out with patterned chasing on a solid lining (Fig. 10, c).
At the same time, the coinage should be held in the left hand, without squeezing it strongly with your fingers, as if on weight, strictly vertically above the plate, touching it only with the little finger. The hammer is held right hand at the very end of the hook, so that it does not hit the coinage, but falls freely on it.
You should not hit the same place twice, otherwise you can break through the background. Places on the product where the coinage does not fit, without touching the convex ornament, can be minted with a needle with a blunt point. During such a study of the background, the plate will warp slightly. Therefore, from time to time it must be leveled with a spatula or a stack.
To give the work a complete look, it can be inserted into a frame. To do this, the plate is placed on linoleum. On it, along the edges, strips are squeezed out under the ruler with a chisel or the tip of a spatula. The frame can be made protruding or concave, depending on which side of f we will push. You can draw two parallel lines on one side, and on the other, deepen and level the groove formed on a solid lining. But in no case should you extrude the frame without completing work on the relief and background. Otherwise, the frame will be uneven. If the work is not attached to anything, you can cut off the edges that protrude beyond the frame.
Since the metals used in metal-plastic are very thin, products made from them can be easily damaged if dropped or even touched carelessly. Therefore, it is recommended to fill the convex areas on the reverse side with some kind of putty. It is prepared from chalk, which is mixed with water and PVA glue until sour cream is thick. Instead of chalk, you can take grated brick, cement or sifted sand. All the recesses are filled with the prepared mass, and the excess putty is removed at the level of the sections most protruding from the back of the product with a steel ruler.
Until the putty has hardened, the product must be attached to a plank prepared for this purpose and punch 4 holes in the corners with a sharp punch. Carnations are inserted into them, a metal rod with a recess at the end is placed on the caps of the carnations, and it is already hit with a hammer. With this method, we will be insured against the fact that with an inaccurate impact, the carnation head will not bend and a dent will not appear on the product itself. Carnations should be matched to the color of the metal. When tinting a product, the sequence of its processing changes somewhat. First of all, the finished plate is tinted, and after that it is filled with putty on the reverse side, then
attached to the board and only then the protruding sections of the ornament are polished, and the product is varnished.
You can decorate a bag, a pencil case and a jewelry box, a shelf and an album cover with metal-plastic products. An interesting work made in the technique of metal-plastic can be hung on the wall.

FLAT RELIEF CASTING

The simplest and most accessible type of coinage is flat-relief coinage. To make it, we first prepare the plate, select and transfer the drawing to it and pro-canfarim it with the help of a chasing-kanfarnik. The further sequence of embossing is shown in technological map 1. Sheet rubber, a wooden lining made of soft wood (linden, alder, aspen) or felt can be used as a lining.
We put the plate on the lining with a pattern up and with a check-consumable we circle the contours of the pattern with a solid in-depth line, that is, we make an expense.
We put the consumable on the line marked by the kanfarnik, and, striking it lightly with a hammer, we begin to deepen all the contours of the pattern with a solid line. The hand with the chasing is directed towards itself, then both the consumable and the line being worked out will be visible at the same time. We work out areas with sharp bends in the pattern with a narrow consumable, slightly tilting it towards the rounding. It is better to use a consumable with a battle in the form of an arc (see Fig. 4, c). It is desirable that after consumption the line be of the same depth and not deeper than 2 mm, otherwise you can break through the metal. At the end of this operation, the pattern on the plate is visible very well both from the front and from the wrong side.
All this work can be done with a crusher, but only on a thin copper or aluminum plate. The lining in this case is felt or rubber.
The next stage in our work is lowering the background around the picture (Fig. 11). As a lining, you will need a steel plate with a flat, smooth surface and a chaser. This operation is quite simple. It consists in the fact that by blows of a hammer and chasing on the plate, we lower the background to the level of the depressed line obtained during consumption. Farther from the relief of the pattern, this can be done with the wide end of the hammer, and in the immediate vicinity - with a hammer, since the pattern can be damaged with a hammer. Do not hit the plate too hard. blows
should not be strong, but frequent. As we gradually lower the background from all sides of the picture, the relief (silhouette of the image) will rise until it becomes clearly distinguished, rising above the background. However, it is too early to stop working. The background of the coinage is uneven and cannot be leveled. From the impacts, the plate stiffened and lost its elasticity. Therefore, it must be annealed. Unlike steel, copper, brass and aluminum plates can be cooled in water after annealing.
After that, we put the coinage on a steel plate and proceed to smooth out the background with a mallet and wooden coinage until the background is fairly even.
While working on the background, the relief surface of the drawing changed again. Some areas were too swollen, while others, on the contrary, did not rise enough. Therefore, the relief needs to be finalized, clarified. First, we will besiege excessively convex areas. We do this with wooden chasings or a mallet on a bag of sand, which we put under the chasing so that it fills the bulge being processed on the reverse side. If there is no sand under the bulges, then we will not be able to accurately level the relief, dents will appear on it from hammer blows.
Then we will work on the places that did not rise enough above the background. To do this, we put the coinage face down on a lining made of rubber or wood, trim the relief, and at the same time mint its individual sections that require more detailed study, refine the contours.
And the last operation is the alignment of the background, which again, while we were finalizing the relief, was somewhat deformed. To do this, put the coinage face up on a steel plate and carefully level the background with a mallet and wooden coinage. We will do this until the background is in contact with the plate with all its points. Rice. 11. Settling the background. To emphasize, to highlight the relief of the image, you can make the background textured, that is, work it out with a kanfarnik, corrugated chasing or fur. This can be done both on a steel plate and on a wooden one. At the same time, the coinage should be held in the hand freely, as if on weight, not pressed against the metal, and it should be struck with a hammer very often and easily. Now, for the last time, we carefully level the background on a steel plate with wooden tools - and now our first chasing is ready!
You can read about how to make embossing more attractive in the section "Artistic decoration of embossed products".

RELIEF CHASING

Veya got acquainted with several types of artistic metal processing. You already have some experience in the technique of flat-relief embossing. Now you can start mastering relief embossing, which is difficult in terms of technique, but with much greater creative possibilities (Fig. 12).
The lining is of particular importance when working in this technique. You can use felt as a lining, but it is best to prepare a resin lining, which allows you to achieve special plasticity and fine modeling. To do this, you first need to make a wooden box for the resin. Its size can be any, depending on the size of the intended coinage. Between the plate and the sides of the box there must be a free space with a width of at least
20...30 mm. For a box, it is desirable to take boards with a thickness of 20 ... 30 mm. The depth of the box depends on the height of the relief, but it is not practical to make this box deeper than 100 mm. rice J2 c Shavgulidze. Adjarian
The resin mixture is PREPARING a dance. Copper, embossed relief.
from 7z black resin or bitumen, 2/3 fine dry earth (ash or grated brick). For greater elasticity of the mixture, a little wax or paraffin (5% of the total mass) and the same amount of rosin are added to it. It must be remembered that the more earth, the harder the mixture will be and vice versa - with an increase in the amount of resin, the mixture will be softer and more viscous. The prepared mixture is boiled in a deep bowl, stirring from time to time until a homogeneous mass is formed. In this case, you must ensure that it does not catch fire. Properly welded resin should flow thickly and adhere well to the metal. The prepared mixture is poured into a wooden box and allowed to cool.
The sequence of chasing works on the resin lining is indicated in the technological map 2. The plate for chasing is cut out with metalwork scissors with a small margin at the edges (field size '20 ... 40 mm), annealed, contaminated places are cleaned with a metal brush or in a boiling solution of drinking soda, after which they are leveled with a mallet on a steel plate. To prevent the plate from moving during operation, its corners are bent down (Fig. 13).
Now you can start grinding the plate. Pitching is the attachment of a plate to a resin lining. First, the top layer of resin and the workpiece are heated. After that, the workpiece is placed on the resin with bent corners down so that it is placed at the same distance from the edges of the box. At the same time, they make sure that there is no air under the v plate, i.e. no holes are formed
chasing, which in the process of minting can lead to the fact that in these places the coinage will break through the metal. To avoid this, it must be placed on the resin not flat, but by lifting one end: first one end of the plate is lowered, then slowly the other. The blank is pressed firmly against the resin, but in such a way that it remains on the surface of the resin. Until the resin cools down, minting is not recommended.
In order to ensure that the edges of the plate do not lag behind the resin and do not twist upwards during the process of upsetting the background, they can be fixed in some places with carnations.
Only after that, a drawing is applied to the plate, it is cut and circled with a consumable with one solid line. The depth of the contour line should not exceed 2 mm, otherwise the plate may be broken.
Now we begin to lower the background around the future relief with a hammer and embossing-hollowers.
Lowering the background should begin in the immediate vicinity of the boundaries of the future relief, at the very contour line with which it is circled. At the same time, the coinage should be kept slightly inclined towards the relief in order to preserve the wall on the side of the relief, which was formed during consumption, and to align the wall (opposite to the wall of the relief) from the side of the background. The areas of the background, distant from the drawing, are upset with a hammer.
The gradual lowering of the background contributes to the rise of the picture, turning it into a relief protruding above the background. When the background is evenly upset, the first stage of the minting process can be considered complete. The plate must be removed from the resin. To do this, it is enough to heat it up and it will easily lag behind the lining.
Since the plate prepared for the living of the background was not hardened for grinding, it must be annealed and cleaned with a soft metal brush or a bundle of thin brass wire. Before the next grinding, the corners of the plate are bent in the opposite direction, towards the protruding relief. Grinding is done in the same way as in the first case, only the plate is placed on the resin with the front side down. The purpose of this stage of work is the further elevation of the relief and the refinement of its forms. The punch is made with various chasers (hollowers, fur coaters, boboshniks) and the rounded part of the hammer.
If you need to further work out the relief on the front side, then its height is made with a small margin, i.e., slightly higher than required.
Relief lifting does not have to be done on resin. This can also be done on a bag of sand or thick rubber, since at this stage of work our task is to raise the relief and correctly establish its basic ratios. Foreground objects should protrude more than background objects and figures. For the same purpose, objects that are more voluminous should also be higher above the background compared to less voluminous objects.
If the background is lifted on a bag of sand or rubber, then individual sections of the relief, which should look clear on the finished work, are knocked out on a soft wooden board. Then the plate is annealed again, cleaned and the corners are bent in the direction opposite to the front.
The background warped during the drifting of the relief is carefully leveled on a steel plate with a wide part of the hammer and a mallet.
The next tarring, unlike the previous ones, is produced in a slightly different way, since we will not be able to put a plate with a relief already knocked out on it on the resin so that there is no air left under it. Therefore, the remaining resin must be melted and the plate heated. Then fill with resin on the reverse side all the recesses of the relief to the level of the background (and even a little higher). When the resin on the coinage begins to solidify, you should heat up the top layer of resin in the box, smooth the resin and put the coinage face up on it.
When the resin has completely cooled down, you can proceed to the final study of all forms of relief.
A special role belongs to the texture of chased surfaces: with its help, combinations of matte, rough, forged, smooth surfaces are created (Fig. 14). This helps, with a slight difference in the height of individual sections of the relief, to achieve a variety of surfaces of the depicted objects and obtain a large decorative effect (Fig. 15).
Chasing will look much more expressive and attractive if its background is also given a texture corresponding to the plot, which will further emphasize and highlight the relief. With the help of various chasings, it can be forged or prokanfarig, made matte or patterned, ornamental.
In some cases, in order to give the work a special decorative effect, the background is cut, that is, it is cut down or sawn out in the expectation that the material to which the chasing will be attached will subsequently become the background. The background is cut in cuts, without removing the coinage from the resin. If the metal is thick and the edges will bend too much during cutting, the background is cut out with a jigsaw after removing the plate from the resin.
The edges of the notch are processed with files and needle files to remove burrs. But you should not align too carefully cut edges - slightly curved edges will give the embossing additional volume.
It remains to heat up the plate, remove it from the resin, anneal and clean it from heat, and very carefully level the background with a mallet.
Rice. 14. A. Sikorskip. An order was given to him to go west. Copper, embossed relief.
Depending on the material and the tasks set, another sequence of work on relief embossing is possible. So, for example, if it is necessary to achieve great accuracy in work, clarity of contours and shapes, the sequence of work can be as follows. The contour of the drawing on the plate is chiseled on a smooth wooden board. The first pitching of the plate is done inside out, i.e., the plate is placed on the resin with the supposed front side down. Then the first stage of minting is not the lowering of the background, but the gouging of the relief. With such a sequence of work, the relief is obtained much more accurately and cleaner, since, unlike the punching of the relief on sand or rubber, when a large section of the plate is lowered with each blow, in this case a strictly limited part of the relief is lowered, corresponding to the area of ​​the working surface of the coinage. At the same time, already at the first stage of the embossing process, it is possible to model the shape by knocking out each section of the relief separately to the required height. The further processing of the coinage is repeated.
Rice. 15. A. Sikorsky. Duma of a Cossack Copper, wood, relief embossing.

CASTING OF VOLUMETRIC PRODUCTS

The technology and sequence of chasing volumetric items (goblets, jugs, bowls) is almost the same as embossed embossing, with the exception of some features. Let's consider the simplest way of chasing volumetric products using the example of chasing a goblet. First of all, the goblet is filled to the brim with resin. When the resin cools down, on the surface of the goblet, by means of a sweep (a tape with a pattern applied to it), the pattern of the ornament is translated. Next, the drawing is cut, after which the contours of the drawing yU are deepened with a consumable. Then, with the help of various lo-
shchatnikov and puroshnikov besiege the background. At this stage of minting, it is best to place the goblet on your knees, although you can also work on a felt lining. b When the background is settled, the goblet is heated to remove the resin from it. The resin is poured into the same vessel in which it was boiled, and the goblet is annealed and cleaned. After that, you can start punching the outer relief from the inside. This delicate and difficult work is carried out with special chisels - hooks and rattles. Hooks and rattles can have a very different form of combat, like that of kanfarniks, loschatniks, purroshniki, boboshniks. The essence of working with a hook is almost the same as with ordinary chasing. The only difference is that the hammer is struck not at the end of the coinage, but at the bar. The goblet is placed on a rubber lining, the working end of the hook is placed on the relief area inside the vessel, which is to be knocked out. The other end of the hook is held in the hand. The hook rod is struck with a hammer. The hook, vibrating, strikes the wall of the vessel with force, raising the relief.
The work of a ratchet is performed differently. The ratchet is clamped in a vise. The vessel is held with the left hand. In the right they hold a hammer. Turning the vessel, the working end of the ratchet is directed to that section of the relief that needs to be lifted, and a strong blow with a hammer is produced on the ratchet bar, on that part of it that is closer to the vise. The ratchet vibrates on impact. Its working end strikes the walls of the vessel, gradually raising the relief.
It is necessary to alternate raising the relief with leveling the background.
Having raised the relief, the vessel is annealed and again filled with resin, after which the relief is finalized with various stamps: its shape is refined, the texture is applied to the background and it is leveled.

ORNAMENTAL PUNCHING

Unlike embossed embossing, only small things and only ornamental ones are made in this technique: brooches, pendants, bracelets, tiaras, hairpins, buckles and other jewelry. You can also make decorations for album covers, pencil cases, photo frames, etc.
The same sheet metals as for other types of coinage can be used as materials for ornamental punch coinage: aluminum, copper, brass. But the best of them is brass. It is golden yellow in color, so after skillful patination and polishing, products made from it acquire a very beautiful appearance.
For ornamental punch chasing, figured chasings are used, the strikers of which are details of floral and geometric ornaments: balls, rhombuses, squares, leaves, flowers, all kinds of curls, circles, etc. (Fig. 16).
To apply the texture to the background, you will have to make a fairly sharp kanfarnik and a small matting chasing. It is desirable that the flat side of the hammer be round, with a diameter of no more than 30 mm and with rounded edges.
You can mint on a wooden lining made of hard wood of non-laminated wood (birch, beech). For each new coinage, a new wooden lining is prepared.
Rice. 17. Template for drawing a picture on metal.
The plate for chasing is cut out with small margins necessary for attaching the workpiece to the lining, annealed, cleaned and leveled with a mallet. Two to four holes for small nails are punched along the edges of the plate with a punch and the pattern is transferred.
For chasing several identical products, it is better to make a template (Fig. 17). This is how the ego is done.
On any thin (I ... 2 mm) plastic plate (or thick cardboard), a detailed drawing is transferred through tracing paper. You can stick the picture on the plate. Then, in places where round bulges are drawn, holes are drilled with a drill so that through the holes formed on the template it is possible to make marks on the workpiece with a pencil or scriber. Figured details of the ornament (leaves, flowers, curls) are cut out with a jigsaw. Straight or curved dotted lines from dots are cut with a solid line. It is enough to attach such a template to the workpiece, circle all the holes and cut it with a sharpened pencil or scriber, and we will get a finished drawing on the workpiece.
The sequence of minting is as follows. A blank with a pattern applied to it is placed on a wooden lining and fixed in the corners with small carnations.
Embossing an ornament should start from its largest details. The coinage with the corresponding battle is placed strictly in the right place and it is strongly hit with a hammer. It is not always possible to deposit the metal to the desired depth the first time. Therefore, we hit a few more times until we reach the required depth. It is necessary to ensure that before each next blow, the coinage stands in its place in its original position. Otherwise, the knocked out detail of the ornament may turn out to be fuzzy.
The larger the part to be knocked out, the more convex it should turn out on the front side. All small details, dots, strokes, etc. should protrude to a small height (up to 1 mm).
After punching out each detail, the background area around it is leveled with the flat part of the hammer to get a sharp, steep transition from the background to the bulges, so that all the bulging details of the ornament will seem like overhead, which will greatly improve the overall look of the craft.
Carnations are driven into the holes punched along the edges of the plate so that the plate does not bounce from the blows of the chasers and the hammer and does not move to the sides. In addition, the studs do not allow the edges of the plate to bend up.
When all the details are knocked out, the background is finally leveled, and the plate is removed from the lining. Now you can give the background the desired texture. To do this, the plate is placed on a steel plate face up and with a sharp capfarone or patterned chasing, the background is easily and carefully worked through.
Sometimes some figured elements of the ornament are stuffed on the front side: strokes, arcs, circles. They do this with chasings with sharp strikers on a steel plate so as not to crush the background. In order to make the product (brooch, pendant) convex, the plate is placed on felt and knocked out with the round end of a hammer.
Extra fields are cut off from the plate, filed with a velvet file, annealed, leveled, tinted and polished.
A pin made of steel or unannealed brass wire is soldered to the brooch or hairpin on the reverse side. For the pendant make a chain.

CASTING

The manufacturing technology of perforated coinage (Fig. 18) is very simple and has not changed for many centuries.
For small things, sheet copper, brass, tin are used, for larger ones - roofing iron. The metal is annealed and cleaned before work. An ornament pattern is applied to the dried blank.
The pattern is cut through at the end of a thick board with special chisels of various widths with semicircular sharpened working ends - notches (see Fig. 4, c). The hammer is used the same as for chasing. After the cutting is completed, the pattern is slightly leveled, but not so much that it becomes completely flat. It is possible to give relief to the pattern, for which it is processed from the wrong side with a chasing-purple or the rounded end of a hammer. The burrs remaining after cutting are sawn off with needle files.
Some kind of coating is applied to the finished pattern, which protects the metal from rust. If the color of the metal is in harmony with the color of the material to which the pattern is attached, then it is enough to cover it after degreasing with a thin layer of varnish or BF-2 glue.
For tinting perforated patterns made of copper or brass, the same recipes are used as for embossed embossing (see the section “Artistic Finishing of Chased Products”).
For the subsequent fastening of a plate with a perforated pattern to a wooden base, holes for studs are punched along its edges with a punch. Fasten the punched coinage with small carnations. In order not to damage the pattern or the head of the carnation, the latter is hammered with a metal rod with a recess at the end. It should be borne in mind that carnation caps are also elements of the composition and play a decorative role. Therefore, the selection of nails according to the color and size of the caps must be considered.

CUT (BUKHARA) CHASING

Knowing all the subtleties of artistic metal processing, it is difficult to distinguish Bukhara chasing from metal engraving, they are so similar in appearance. And only knowing the technique of performing these types of artistic metal processing, as well as the traces left by the cutter, one can recognize the Bukhara coinage. In engraving, the grooves are even and smooth, while in embossing, at the bottom of the grooves, small thresholds are always visible, which are formed from frequent hammer blows on the cutter.
To work with the notched chasing technique, brass is most often used, but it should not be thinner than 1 mm. You can also mint on other soft metals: copper, bronze, etc.
The set of tools of the chaser is very small. It includes: a light hammer with a curved handle, a compass for marking on metal and 3-4 chisels (so-called kalamy) 100 ... 120 mm long and 2 ... 5 mm wide cutting part.
Chasers work standing or sitting on a chair. The product is placed on a special inclined stand resembling a music stand. Sometimes they use small portable stands that are placed on a regular table.
A sketch of the ornament is drawn with a ruler and a compass on thin paper. Since modern Bukhara masters decorate plates, dishes, trays, i.e., round products, with chasing, they also build an ornament inscribed in a circle with a clearly marked center. The drawing is transferred to the product, so that the center of the ornament exactly coincides with the center of the
products. If the drawing is not very visible, it is corrected with a pencil. In order for the drawing not to be erased from the metal during work, it is covered with a transparent varnish.
Then they prepare rosin pitch, with which the product intended for decorating it with chasing is attached to a wooden shield. To do this, one part of kerosene and twenty parts of crushed rosin are mixed in a deep metal bowl and boiled for half an hour. The var is occasionally stirred and monitored so that it does not catch fire. Cooked var can be used repeatedly. When the var is ready, it must cool until it becomes soft like putty. Having wetted the hands in water, it is laid out on a wooden square board of a slightly larger size than the product, and flattened so that a round, even cake 30 ... 50 mm thick is obtained. Immediately, before the var has hardened, a plate is placed on top of it upside down and strongly pressed. When the var finally hardens and grabs the product, the shield is transferred to a stand and start chasing, i.e., working out the lines of the ornament with chisels.
The cutter, which is lightly and frequently struck with a hammer, is held in the left hand. Move it evenly and smoothly along the line. According to the thickness of the chips coming out from under the cutter, the master determines the depth of the selected groove and adjusts it by changing the inclination of the cutter. To make the groove deeper, hammer blows should be applied harder, and vice versa, to get shallow grooves, it is easier. Similarly, straight lines are cut with rare but strong blows of a hammer, and curves and all kinds of curls are worked out with smooth, but frequent blows, with a slow stroke of the cutter.
At the same time, you need to be very careful and careful.
Since it is more convenient to hold the cutter in a vertical position during work, and to strike with a hammer from top to bottom, the shield with the product constantly rotates on the stand, and thus the segment of the ornament contour being worked out is always in a vertical position.
When the ornament is ready, the background is hatched. They make it with light blows of a hammer on a cutter that barely touches the metal. Most often, the background hatching is from the edges to the center (or vice versa).
After polishing with felt and GOI paste, the product is covered with one layer of transparent varnish.

Basma - embossing or punching on a matrix - has a number of significant advantages over manual chasing. First of all - the speed of manufacture and significant savings in metal and time.
Embossing can be carried out on soft sheet metal made of aluminum, copper, brass, and even thin sheet metal used in the food industry (Fig. 19). The softer and thinner the metal, the more accurately it reproduces all the details and texture of the matrix. If the metal is harder or thicker, the clarity of the relief is lost.
The sequence for making basma is as follows. In accordance with the sketch, a bassinet board (matrix) is made in the form of a metal plate 10–20 mm thick with a relief with a total height of 2–6 mm. So that sharp protrusions and edges do not break through thin metal when embossing, the relief must have soft, smooth shapes. The reverse side of the matrix is ​​flat and even.
The matrix is ​​produced in two ways: casting and engraving. First way. A relief is molded from clay, a mold is removed from it, according to which a matrix is ​​cast from hard copper alloys, it is carefully minted in order to remove defects that have arisen during casting.
The second way is more laborious. On a steel plate with a thickness of about 10 mm (and thicker), the relief is engraved manually using chisels and engravers or with a drill.
Basma itself can also be made in two ways: embossing and knocking out. The first way is as follows. A thin (0.1 ... 0.3 mm) annealed sheet of metal is placed on the matrix, a sheet of rubber is placed on top. All this is placed under a manual screw press. Rubber contributes to the indentation of a thin metal sheet into all the recesses of the mattress. As a result, a relief image is formed on the sheet, which quite accurately reproduces all the details of the matrix.

THE ART OF MINING OF THE PEOPLES OF THE CAUCASUS

In the second method, a sheet of metal is placed on a matrix. Its protruding edges are folded down on all four sides so that the sheet does not move during further work. After that, the relief is knocked out with a rubber or PVC hammer.
Sometimes the metal, especially when working with high relief, is hardened, which leads to breaks or cracks. In this case, the plate is removed and annealed.

DIFOVKA

First of all, every sculptor who decides to create some kind of work with this technique should take into account the plastic features of sheet metal when sculpting a model.
The material for such a sculpture is copper, brass, aluminum, stainless steel with a thickness of 0.5 to 2 mm. The thickness of the metal depends primarily on the size and complexity of the sculpture.
From the author's original, which is prepared, as a rule, from clay, a plaster mold is removed, with the help of which the plaster original is cast and finalized. Not a whole mold is removed from the plaster model, but fragments (pieces) for casting, this time, working cement or metal relief molds, on which the sheet metal is directly driven out. Cement pieces are used to knock out the generalized details of the sculpture; they are made from cement and sand. For chasing the most finely modeled parts (heads, hands, etc.), babbitt molds are cast, which include tin, lead, copper, antimony, cadmium (earlier, only cast iron was used for this purpose).
Then, according to the finished forms for the punch, they are cut out of paper for each individual section of the pattern. The number of them in each case is different, depending on the complexity of the sculpture. So, for example, three patterns are most often made for the head; two are removed from the front with a junction line through the forehead, nose, chin and one from the back of the head. Accordingly, pieces of sheet metal are cut out according to paper patterns, which are then annealed (except for aluminum).
An annealed sheet of metal is applied to the desired section of the mold, pressed with special clamps and beaten with rubber or lead hammers until
until it fits snugly. If during operation the metal is hardened, it is annealed. If protruding folds form on sheet blanks during punching, they are cut out with scissors.
After that, the workpiece is annealed, again placed on the mold, tightly pressed against it with a strong rope, and the sheet is minted with wooden, plastic, copper and aluminum stamps. Then the workpiece is annealed again, tightly attached to the mold again and finally minted with steel chasings. It often happens that the knockout process ends immediately after working with wooden chasers.
For hammered parts, excess metal is cut off at their joints. They do it like this. Any part is applied to the form and the junction with the neighboring part is drawn on it. The part is removed from the mold and the excess metal is cut off. An adjacent part is placed on the form, and next to it, with an overlap, an already cut adjacent one is placed. On the newly laid part, the joint is marked according to the one cut off on the previously tried on part, and the excess metal is removed. In this way, all the details of the future sculpture are cut and adjusted one to one. Then they are welded. Welding seams are filed and minted. By the way, welding is carried out with the same metal from which the sculpture is made.
And, finally, the sculpture is mounted on a steel frame made of angled or strip metal. For this purpose, at certain points inside the sculpture, where the frame is supposed to be connected to it, strips of the same metal as the sculpture are welded. Textolite spacers are inserted between the fastened parts of the frame and the plates welded to the sculpture, which are bolted together. This eliminates the appearance of corrosion, which occurs when dissimilar metals are joined closely together.
Artistic Finishing of Chased Items Everyone has probably seen antique items made of bronze, copper, brass, and silver in museums. And, probably, everyone noticed that they are all, as it were, multi-colored, dark in the recesses and shiny on the protruding relief details. These polished areas sparkle and shimmer mysteriously against a dark background that seems to recede into the depths, which makes old products especially beautiful and attractive.
What are these coatings that transform antique objects in such a way? The patina of green, blue, brown, gray and black shades that covers non-ferrous metals over time is called patina. Patina appears as a result of long-term exposure of the metal to oxygen, hydrogen sulfide vapors, acids, when reactions occur on the surface of metals, as a result of which new chemicals are formed. They, connecting with the given metal and covering it, give it this or that color.
However, it is not necessary to wait for many years until our coinage is also covered with a patina. Due to the fact that the metals used in coinage easily react with many chemicals, as a result of which new substances are also formed on their surface in the form of thin films of various colors, we have many opportunities to “age” our coinage artificially in a matter of minutes. Applying artificial toning - patination, the chaser can, at his own discretion, in accordance with the creative plan, emphasize or visually soften the form or its individual details, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of the composition. After all, the darkened background, as it were, recedes into the background, thereby highlighting the relief, more fully revealing and emphasizing it, and at the same time the semantic emphasis of the work, its content, idea. In addition, tinting can achieve not only barely noticeable color transitions on the embossing, but also color harmony between the embossing and the base on which it is attached (wood, cardboard, fabric).
The most important guarantee of the successful implementation of the process of tinting chasing is the purity of the metal. In order for a metal to actively react with any chemical substance, it must be completely pure. Therefore, the coinage must first be annealed. Annealing is done not only to make the coinage softer, but primarily to burn off all the resin residues on it. Residual resin can also be removed with benzine or thinner.
But before proceeding to tinting, let's take a quick look at the chemicals that can be used for this process.
Bitumen - natural or artificial solid or viscous liquid organic pitches of black color.
Cream of tartar C2P2(OH)2(COOH)2 - colorless, sour-tasting crystals that dissolve easily in water.
H2O water is an excellent solvent for a huge amount of organic and inorganic substances and compounds.
Hyposulfite (sodium thiosulfate, sodium sulphate) 5H20 - brilliant colorless crystals, easily soluble in water. It is used in photography for the preparation of fixers (fixers).
Rosin is a hard, brittle, glassy, ​​transparent resin of light yellow color. Resin product coniferous trees. It is used in soldering and manufacturing of many materials.
Glue BF-2 - alcohol solution of phenol-formaldehyde resin and polyvinyl butyral. Used for bonding metals and other materials.
Kerosene is a clear or colorless yellowish flammable liquid with a blue tint.
A solution of potassium permanganate (potassium permanganate) KM204 - dark purple crystals, soluble in water.
Linseed oil is a yellowish oily liquid.
Copper sulphate - (copper sulfate, copper sulfate) CuS045H20 - transparent glassy crystals of bright blue color, which are easily soluble in water, giving the solution a blue color.
Ammonia - (ammonium chloride) YH4C1 - white crystalline powder, bitter in taste, with a pungent odor, soluble in water.
Copper nitrate (") (copper nitrate) Cu (N03) 2X X3H2O - blue crystals, when heated, they decompose with the release of oxygen and brown oxides of nitrogen, turning into black copper oxide.
Drying oil is a yellowish liquid film-forming substance with a pleasant smell.
Paraffin - white or yellowish mass, odorless and tasteless, melting point 50...60°.
Paste GOI - solid green color, consisting of stearin, wax, fats and polishing powders. It is used for polishing non-ferrous and other light metals.
Potash (potassium carbonate, potassium carbonate) K2CO3 is a white fine crystalline powder that dissolves well in water.
Milk sugar (lactose) Ci2H220n is a white crystalline substance, sweet in taste. Obtained from milk whey Used in pharmaceuticals.
Sulfur S (in sticks) is a yellow solid, insoluble in water,
Soda bicarbonate (drinking) NaHCO3 - white powder, odorless, soluble in water.
Now let's get acquainted with some methods of tinting metals used in coinage. Let's start with aluminum.
For tinting aluminum products, the easiest way is to use ordinary smoke. But before that, the convex places of the coinage must be polished. Then the coinage is held over the birch bark on fire, making sure that it is evenly covered with soot. After that, the coinage is lightly wiped with a rag, trying not to remove the soot in the recesses and varnished.
A beautiful film from light brown to dark brown fading to black can be obtained on aluminum if it is moistened with milk and ignited over a flame until the milk has completely evaporated. The shades depend on the amount of milk that has fallen on the plate: the less it is, the lighter the coating.
In order for the product to be covered with a golden film, paraffin is used, which in the molten state is applied to the surface with a thin layer, after which the coinage is heated over a flame.
For tinting aluminum, copper, brass, you can use kerosene and bitumen. They do it this way: they soak a rag in kerosene and run it over bitumen, then carefully rub the coinage, especially in the recesses. When the product acquires the necessary blackness, the bitumen is removed from the convex places and the coinage is heated over the flame until it dries completely.

Recipes for toning products

The simplest and, perhaps, the most ancient method of tinting copper products is the so-called linseed firing, during which the copper sheet becomes brown and shiny. Chasing is covered with a thin layer linseed oil and heated at a moderate flame (and even better in a muffle furnace) until the oil evaporates. To get a beautiful and durable color, the process should be repeated up to twenty times.
In the same way, you can tint and tin. Instead of flaxseed, you can use any vegetable oil and even drying oil.
Copper can be given a silvery sheen if rubbed with a mixture of 4 g of ammonia, 4 g of cream of tartar
and 1 g of lapis. The resulting mixture is diluted with water until the density of the slurry.
The following few recipes can be used to tint brass.
A pleasant warm brown tone will give a brass plate immersion in a solution consisting of 1 liter of 25% ammonia water and 50 g of copper sulfate.
The recipes below are suitable for tinting both copper and brass.
In order to obtain a black-green color, the plate is dipped in a 50% copper nitrate solution, dried slowly, and then heated rapidly.
Copper and brass can be given the appearance of silver. To do this, a well-cleaned and degreased plate is immersed for a long time (12 ... 15 hours) in the old spent hyposulfite (fixer).
To get a brown color, you can use a solution of 50 g of hyposulfite, 50 g of copper sulfate and 1 liter of water. The plate is dipped into a solution heated to a temperature of 70...80°C.
Excellent results are obtained when tinting copper and brass with the so-called sulfur liver. To prepare it, mix 1 part sulfur and 2 parts potash and heat with constant stirring until the mixture is completely melted. The cooled and hardened mass is stored in a hermetically sealed glass container. For toning, a working solution is made up: 5 ... 10 g of sulfuric liver are dissolved in 1 liter of water. 10 ... 15 g per 1 liter will give gray tones. The plate is immersed in a solution (18 ... 20 ° C) for
2...3 min. You should not store the solution for more than a day, as it quickly becomes unusable.
And in conclusion, a few words about the polishing and varnishing of finished products.
After giving the coinage a particular color, the convex sections of the relief are polished to distinguish them from the background. After polishing, the background, remaining dark, seems to go deeper, further emphasizing the relief and giving the work volume and versatility.
As a polishing agent, you can use crushed chalk, grated brick, abrasive powder, soda, tooth powder, pumice, and, of course, GOI paste. Powders are best mixed with ammonia or water until creamy. The resulting mixture is applied to felt, cloth or reverse side leather, with which the chasing is polished by hand.
To preserve the shine, it is recommended to cover the work with clear varnish or BF-2 glue.
Quite often, the background of the coinage is cut through or sawn out, and the relief itself is mounted on a wooden base. Wood for the background is chosen with an expressive, well-read texture, the color of which is in harmony with the embossing, complementing it. If necessary, the color is changed with stain, stain or potassium permanganate solution. For the same purpose, the tree can be slightly burned over the flame. After that, the wooden base is coated with a transparent varnish.

Glossary

Knockout - knocking out with hammers (usually wooden) of individual sections of the relief. A punch is also called the process of making a three-dimensional sculpture.
Extraction is a property of some metals to stretch under mechanical action. In this case, the surface area of ​​the workpiece increases.
Engraving is the application of inscriptions, drawings, patterns to a metal surface with a cutting tool.
Deformation is a change in the original shape of an object under some influence.
Difovka - a type of cold working of sheet metal, not thicker than 2 mm, directly with a hammer. It is also called a knockout of a three-dimensional sculpture.
Billet - a metal plate prepared for minting.
Shotgunning is the application of small dots to some part of the coinage (most often to the background) with a stamper-canfarer. It is also called the study by the same chase of the contour lines of the pattern on the metal.
Contour line - a line that outlines the external outlines of an object.
Matted surface - an area of ​​a chased product that has a matte (not shiny) surface.
Hardening is the property of metal to become brittle and brittle.
Pitching - laying the workpiece for chasing on a resin lining.
Bleaching - chemical cleaning of metal in soda or acid solutions.
Flanging - bending the edges of the chased product.
Annealing or tempering of metal - heating the metal to a certain temperature in order to give it the missing softness.
Patination - artificial "aging" of coinage.
Notching - cutting out individual sections of the plate.
Scan - a tape with an ornament applied to it, with the help of which this ornament is transferred to a round volumetric product.
Raskhodka - stroking the pro-sanded contour line of the relief with a chaser-consumable, i.e. drawing a solid line in the form of a groove.
Relief - the convex surface of the image, significantly protruding above the background.
Straightening - straightening of metal sheets with curvature.
Embossing is the application of figurative elements to a plate.
Toning - artificial patination (giving the necessary tone, color to the chased product).
Texture - a feature of the surface finish of the coinage (matte, rough, smooth).

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