Doctor masters and virginia biography. The founder of sex

There are many different reasons that make knowledge of sexology necessary for any person; for example, college students attending relevant courses are not guided by academic, but by purely personal motives. After all, awareness in matters of sex, in contrast to knowledge in physical chemistry or mathematical analysis, can be very useful in real life. This does not mean that the problem of human sexuality is not of scientific value (on the contrary); it's just that the knowledge gained in this area can be used more directly than information in other sciences.

An informed person in matters of sex can avoid many problems in own life and in the sexual education of their children. If problems arise (for example, infertility, sexual impotence, sexually transmitted diseases, sexual harassment), the knowledge gained in this area will help to successfully cope with them. Awareness of the nature of sexuality makes a person more sensitive and attentive to other people, thereby helping to strengthen intimate relationships and achieve more complete sexual satisfaction.

Nowadays, there is another particularly good reason that makes knowledge of sexology simply necessary. In the era of the HIV epidemic (short for the human immunodeficiency virus that causes AIDS), the responsible choice of sexual partners literally saves a person's life. In addition, it is now clear that unless a cure for AIDS is found, in the coming years, each of us will be affected in one way or another by the tragedies associated with the HIV/AIDS epidemic; with accurate information on sex issues, we will become more tolerant and better aware of the burden this disease places on our society, and indeed on the whole world.

Unfortunately, knowledge alone does not make a person happy. There is no guarantee that careful study of this book will help you find (or keep) your loved one. We simply believe that objective information about human sexuality will enable our readers to understand a variety of problems, both purely personal and social or moral, and thereby better know themselves and other people. We also believe that sexual literacy can lead people to act intelligently and responsibly towards each other and help them make important decisions in this area. In short, sexual education is an invaluable preparation for life.

Various aspects of sexuality. Some definitions

For every person, the meaning attached to the word "sexy" seems obvious. First of all, it means something "indecent", something that is not customary to talk about in society (Freud, 1943).

"For both the South Sea Islanders and us, sex is not just a physiological act; it involves love and lovemaking; it is at the core of such time-honored institutions as marriage and the family; it permeates art, endowing it with charm and magic. "In essence, he dominates all areas of culture. Sex in the broadest sense of the word is a sociological and cultural factor, and not just a carnal connection between two individuals" (Malinowsky, 1929).

"Francie, damned slut," I often said, "for lasciviousness, you are not far from a cat." "But you like me, don't you? Men love to fuck, women do too. There's no harm in it, but it's not necessary to love everyone we do it with, is it?" (Miller, 1961).

What is sexuality? As the quotes above show, there is no simple answer to this question. Freud considered sex to be a powerful psychic and biological force, while Malinowski emphasizes its sociological and cultural aspects. Henry Miller painted explicit pictures of sex in his novels in order to philosophically comprehend the very essence of man. In everyday life, the word "sex" has recently come to be used to refer to sexual intercourse ("having sex"). The word "sexuality" is usually understood more broadly, as it refers to everything related to sex. Sexuality is one of the facets of a given person, and not just his ability to have an erotic reaction.

Unfortunately, our language limits the possibility of discussing sex in conversations between people. By distinguishing between sexual activities (such as masturbation, kissing, or intercourse) and sexual behavior (which includes not only sexual intercourse per se, but also flirting, a certain style of dress, reading Playboy, and dating), we have only scratched the surface. to the issue of sexuality. Describing different kinds sex as procreative (with the goal of procreation), recreational (with the sole purpose of having fun) and relative ("love-friendship", the opportunity to communicate with a loved one), we are convinced that the categories we have identified are too few. Although we cannot give an exhaustive answer to the question “What is sexuality?” in this chapter, we will consider the various aspects of sexuality that will be discussed in this book.

Real situation

David and Lynn sat in front of the sex therapist's office, anxious as they waited for the appointment. Despite their embarrassment, David and Lynn were determined to find a way out of the sexual problems that had plagued their relationship for three years. recent months. They had lived together for two years and intended to marry after college, but the feeling of dissatisfaction that entered their lives cast doubt on the reality of these plans.

Entering the doctor's office, they bluntly stated their problems. They met three years ago, when they were 18 years old, in their first year. The novel began on the basis of a common interest and easily turned into an intimate sexual relationship. For both David and Lynn, this was not the first love affair; they experienced a strong sexual attraction to each other. Their first love date was passionate and sensual. The relationship grew stronger and gave them great pleasure. The natural result of these feelings was a life together that brought them joy - until recently.

The first time they failed was during the Christmas holidays when they went to Boston to visit Lynn's parents. David was upset because he and Lynn were given separate bedrooms. Lynn was distressed by the apparently cold reception her parents gave David. The only time they managed to be alone (on a Sunday morning while Lynn's parents were at church), their caresses were hasty and mechanical. They returned to New York with relief and met New Year with friends.

Sexual relations are an integral part of the life of each of us.

The party, during which there was a lot of champagne, lasted until 4 o'clock in the morning. Returning to their room, David and Lynn intended to make love, but David failed to achieve an erection. They laughed about it and went to sleep, glad they were "at home".

The next morning, David had a terrible hangover. He took a few aspirins, had a quick breakfast, and motioned for Lynn to go to bed. She didn't mind, although she didn't really want to, as she, too, was suffering from a bit of a hangover. David and this time failed to achieve an erection. Lynn was sympathetic to this, but David was very worried about his sexual failure all day. Deciding that he needed to rest and calm down before making new attempts, he went to bed that evening.

When he woke up in the morning, he felt energized and immediately turned to Lynn to hug her.

Despite being in good health, David had only a partial erection, but it also disappeared when he tried to have intercourse. From that time on, David constantly experienced some difficulty with erection, and Lynn, who at first tried to help him, became more and more worried. In their relationship, in the past relaxed and pleasant, irritation and harshness began to appear. They talked about going their separate ways, but figured they still loved each other and could, with some help from a specialist, deal with the problem.

With this example, selected from our file cabinet, we want to look at various aspects of sexuality, which are dealt with in more detail in later chapters of the book. The situation that arose in the life of David and Lynn gives us the opportunity to show the importance of the various aspects of sexuality that interact in the lives of each of us.

Biological aspect

Difficulties with erection first arose for David after he drank a lot of champagne. This should not come as a surprise, since alcohol has a depressant effect on the nervous system. Since the nervous system normally transmits physical sensations to the brain and activates some of the sexual reflexes, too much alcohol can block the sexual response in anyone.

However, the biological aspect of sexuality is much broader. Biological factors largely control sexual development from the moment of conception to the birth of a child, and upon reaching puberty - the ability to reproduce. In addition, these factors influence sexual desire, sexual activity and (indirectly) sexual satisfaction. It is even suggested that biological factors determine some of the sex differences in behavior, such as the greater aggressiveness of men compared to women (Olweus et al., 1980; Reinisch, 1981). Asexual arousal, regardless of its cause, has biological consequences: an increased heart rate, a reaction in the genitals, and sensations of warmth and awe that spread throughout the body.

Psychological aspect

David and Lynn reacted differently to the situation. David was worried, could not think of anything else, lost confidence in himself, while Lynn, who at first showed understanding and participation and tried to support him, became more and more irritable and aloof. It was clear that the nature of their relationship had changed under the stress of the sexual problem. They even began to doubt their feelings for each other and whether they should marry, although during the trip to Lynn's parents, both were convinced of this.

This case illustrates the psychological aspect of sexuality, but at the same time, social factors (the nature of interaction between people) are added to purely psychological factors (emotions, thoughts, individual perception). David's preoccupation with his first sexual "failure" set off a chain of failures, even though the original biological "cause" - too much alcohol - was already gone. The panic that gripped him forced him to make more and more attempts to have sex, but the results were just the opposite of what he and Lynn wanted.

The psychological aspect is inherent in any sexual problem, but in the formation of a person's sexual self-identification in the process of development, it is this aspect that plays a dominant role. Awareness by the child of his belonging to the male or female gender formed mainly under the influence of psychosocial factors. The individual's preconceived notions about his sex role in early childhood (which tend to persist into adulthood) are largely based on what parents, peers, and teachers instill in him. In addition to the psychological aspect, sexuality has a pronounced social aspect, since sexual relations between people are regulated by laws, prohibitions, and public opinion, convincing us of the need to follow accepted norms in our sexual behavior.

Behavioral aspect

After talking with David and Lynn separately, we found that in the three months since their first sexual failure, the relationship between them has changed a lot. The frequency of attempts at sexual intimacy dropped sharply, while before they had sex 4-5 times a week. David began to frequently resort to masturbation (which he had not done for several years), as it turned out that in this way he easily achieves an erection. As for Lynn, she only masturbated once because she felt like she was doing something wrong. Lynn also avoided showing affection towards David, fearing that this might put additional pressure on him.

The described details of the relationship between David and Lynn reflect the behavioral aspect of sexuality. And although human sexual behavior is determined by biological and psychological factors, the study of the behavioral aspect of sexuality is of independent interest. By exploring it, we not only learn what people do, but also better understand how and why they do it. For example, David resorted to masturbation in order to strengthen his self-confidence, to prove to himself that he retained the ability to erect. Lynn tried to avoid physical intimacy with the best of intentions, but David could decide that she was rejecting him.

When discussing this topic, one should not judge the behavior of other people on the basis of one's own criteria and one's own experience. Too often people tend to think about sexuality by dividing all of its manifestations into "normal" and "abnormal". We often consider “normal” what we do ourselves and what we like, while “abnormal” in our eyes is everything that others do and which seems to us “wrong” or strange. Trying to judge what is normal for other people is not only a thankless task, but, as a rule, doomed to failure, because our own principles and existing experience suppress our objectivity.

Clinical aspect

David and Lynn went through two weeks of sexual therapy and resolved all their problems. They not only began to enjoy intimacy as much as before, but also felt that other aspects of their relationship improved as a result of therapy. As Lynn told us: “It was great that we got over the sexual problem, but we also learned so much about ourselves. We have become much closer, and the feelings that bind us are so strong that we will be able to overcome any difficulties. if they occur."

Despite the fact that sexual activity is one of the natural functions of the body, there are many different circumstances that can weaken the pleasure or immediacy of our love dates. Physical problems such as illness, injury, or drugs can change the nature of our sexual responses or even suppress them altogether.

Feelings of anxiety, guilt, embarrassment or depression and conflicts in our personal relationships can interfere with sexual activity. Searching for ways to solve these and other problems that impede the achievement of sexual health and happiness is engaged in sex therapy.

Great strides have been made over the past two decades in the treatment of a wide variety of sexual disorders. Two points played a key role in this: a deeper understanding of the many-sidedness of the nature of sexuality and the development of a new science - sexology - which studies the problems of sex. Doctors, psychologists, nurses, and other professionals who have completed a course in sexology can use what they have learned, combined with their existing professional training, to help many of their patients.

Cultural aspect

The life of David and Lynn, like the life of any of us, reflects the characteristics of the cultural environment to which we belong. So, Lynn's parents did not allow her and David to sleep in the same room, although they knew that the young people lived together. Another example is that Lynn's guilt about masturbating was largely due to her upbringing. And David's anxiety about his sexual failures was in part a reaction to the widespread belief among Americans that an erection should occur as soon as a man came on a love date.

The attitude towards sex accepted in our society is far from being universal. Among some peoples, a special affection for a guest or friend is expressed by offering him his wife (Voget, 1961). Tribes are known (Ford, Beach, 1951) whose representatives are not known to kiss. The authors describe their impressions as follows: "When the Tonga first saw Europeans kissing, they began to laugh, saying:" Look at them, they eat each other's saliva and leftover food. "These strange customs may repel or amuse us, but at the same time they help to realize that our views are not shared by everyone and not everywhere.

Sexuality has received a lot of attention and is a topic of much discussion, but disagreements that arise in the course of disputes often depend on the time, place and circumstances of the discussion. Estimates of "morally" or "correctly" are different for different peoples and in different centuries. Many moral principles related to sex are associated with certain religious traditions but religion does not have a monopoly on morality. People who do not have strong religious convictions can be no less moral than deeply religious people. There is no such system of sexual values ​​that would be true for everyone and everyone, and no moral code can be undeniably correct and applicable in all cases.

In the United States, the ideas about sexual behavior that prevailed in the first half of the 20th century have changed significantly over the past 25 years. If, for example, before they attached very great importance to the fact that a girl should keep her virginity before marriage, now the attitude towards premarital sexual relations has become the exact opposite. As a result, the age at which sexual activity begins has decreased compared to what it was 20-30 years ago; an increasing number of teenagers are having sex and a significant proportion of prospective spouses live together before marriage. Another illustration of the change in morals is the attitude towards masturbation as a harmless pleasant activity, which differs sharply from the previous views, according to which masturbation is a sign of moral weakness and a path to mental degradation.

Over the past decades, three trends have played an important role in the development of the new American attitude towards sex and sexuality. The first of them is the liberation from sex-role stereotypes. Each person feels himself a being of one sex or another (gender self-identification); how he manifests himself in this capacity is usually called a sex role (Money, Ehrardt, 1972). Traditionally, women and girls were considered to be sexually passive, and men were assigned the role of sexual aggressors. In accordance with the existing stereotype, it is the man who should act as the initiator of sexual relations, and a woman who behaved actively or did not hide the pleasure received from carnal love was looked askance. For many people, these views have now been replaced by ideas about the equality of sexual partners. The second trend is greater openness in matters of sex. This change has affected all media - from television and cinema to the printed word. As a result, sex was no longer viewed as something shameful and mysterious. The third trend is the spread of attitudes towards sex as a way to have fun and relieve stress. The dominance of relative and recreational sex over the past 25 years is partly due to improvements in contraceptives and concerns about the overpopulation of the planet.

It would be a mistake to think that sociocultural views can remain unchanged for a long time. Some indications are that the anxiety caused by the increase in the frequency of sexually transmitted diseases, combined with the growing trend towards political and religious conservatism, may soon lead to a rollback from the sexual permissiveness of the 60s and 70s. In fact, many observers believe that the so-called sexual revolution is already over, that we are on the threshold of a new era when duty and fidelity in intimate relationships will prevail over momentary pleasure and sexual permissiveness. However, since cultural trends are notable for their volatility, it is impossible to predict with certainty how development will take this new direction.

SPECIAL STUDY

The writer's case

A twenty-nine-year-old woman, who won high-profile acclaim with her first well-written novel two years ago, consulted a psychotherapist about the loss of her ability to write: she was supposed to finish her second novel six months ago, and meanwhile for almost a year she has only managed to write more than a few on rare days. paragraphs often she would sit helplessly staring at the hard-coded lines, unable to concentrate.

Soon after such a problem arose in her work, she had difficulties in sexual relations with her husband, although before she was easily aroused and reached orgasm. Gradually, her desire to have sex began to disappear, and main reason this she considered the tension created by her creative turmoil. She also developed insomnia, which left her feeling tired all day. Sometimes all this brought her to such despair that she burst into tears.

When, after several months of psychotherapy, she still could not write, her doctor advised her and her husband to see a sex therapist, believing that if she managed to cope with sexual problems, it would help her to start writing again.

At the very first conversations with the patient, the sex therapist suspected that the woman was suffering from clinical depression. Further questioning revealed that she had thought of suicide from time to time, and had lost more than 5 kg over the past six months. In addition, her mother, as well as her maternal aunt, suffered from depression.

After several weeks of taking antidepressants, the woman began to notice that she was able to focus on her romance and returned to her good dream. And soon renewed interest in sex, and she began to experience an orgasm again.

Comment. As this example shows, not all sexual problems require sex therapy. In this case, the main psychological problem was the loss of creativity, although it was precisely this circumstance that prevented the first psychotherapist from making a correct diagnosis. Depression is very often accompanied by disorders of the sexual sphere; Fortunately, these disorders are usually easy to manage with the right treatment for the depression itself.

Sexuality through the prism of history

The main obstacle to understanding our own sexuality is that we are trapped in old beliefs (Bullough, 1976).

To understand the present, it is useful to study the past. Some views on sex and sexuality are passed down from generation to generation unchanged, but many modern views are very different from the previous ones.

Ancient times

Although we have written historical records dating back almost 5,000 years, information about sexual behavior and attitudes towards sex in different societies earlier than the first millennium BC. there are very few of them. From the available evidence, it appears that already at that time there was a clear prohibition on marriage between close relatives (Tannahill, 1980), and a woman was considered property used for sexual needs and for procreation (Bullough, 1976). Men could have many women, prostitution was widespread, and sex was seen as essential to life.

With the advent of Judaism, an interesting ambiguity began to emerge in relation to sex. The first five books of the Old Testament contain rules for sexual behavior: adultery is forbidden (one of the Ten Commandments says this), and homosexuality is strictly condemned (Leviticus 18:20, Leviticus 21:13). At the same time, sex is recognized as a creative and pleasurable force, as described in the Song of Songs. Thus, sex was not considered an absolute evil and its role was not limited to reproduction alone.

In contrast, in ancient Greece, some forms of male homosexuality were not only tolerated, but enthusiastic. Sexual relations between an adult male and a boy who had reached puberty were widespread and usually accompanied by the elder's concern for the moral and intellectual development of the youth (Bullough, 1976; Karlen, 1980; Tannahill, 1980). If, however, these relationships were limited to sex only, they were frowned upon, as was homosexual intercourse between adult men. And homosexual contact between adult men and boys who had not reached puberty was prohibited by law. Marriage and family were given great importance, but at the same time, women were second-class citizens, if they could be considered citizens at all: “In Athens, women had no more political rights than slaves; throughout their lives they were completely subordinate to nearest male relative ... As in all other places in the first millennium BC, women were part of personal chattels, although some of them were extraordinary personalities.For the ancient Greeks, a woman (regardless of age and marital status) - it is only a "gyna", i.e. a maker of children (Tannahill, 1980).

At the dawn of Christianity, attitudes towards sexuality were a mixture of Greek and Jewish attitudes. Unlike Judaism, which did not separate physical from spiritual love, Christian teaching borrowed from the Greeks the distinction between "eros", or carnal love, and "agape", spiritual, incorporeal love (Gordis, 1977). Ballough (1976) writes that the Hellenistic era in Greece (beginning in 323 BC) was marked by the rejection of carnal pleasures in favor of the development of spirituality. This, together with the inevitable end of the world described in the New Testament, led the Christian religion to exalt celibacy, despite the fact that St. Paul wrote, "Though it is good for a man not to touch a woman...it is better to marry than to be inflamed" (1 Corinthians 7:1-9).

By the end of the IV century. AD, despite the existence of small groups of Christians who held less rigid views on sexuality, the attitude of the church as a whole towards it was clearly negative, which was clearly reflected in the writings of one of the church fathers, Blessed Augustine, who, before renouncing worldly pleasures, indulged in various passions. In "Confessions" Augustine denounced himself in harsh words: "I polluted the river of friendship with the abomination of debauchery and muddied its transparent waters with the infernal black river of lust" (Confessions, Book III: I). He believed that lust is the result of the fall of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, which separated people from God. Thus, sexuality was strongly condemned in all its forms, although Augustine and his contemporaries probably felt that marital procreative sex was a lesser evil than all others.

The sexual theme has been present in the visual arts since ancient times. Interesting examples serve this ancient Roman lamp, with which they drove away evil spirits, and a Greek dish depicting an erotic scene.

The Ancient East

In other parts of the world, ideas about sex were very different from those just described. Much more positive was the attitude towards sex among the followers of Islam, Hinduism and in the Ancient East. As Balloch writes, "almost everything pertaining to sex was approved by some section of Indian society", and in China "sex was not considered something terrible or vicious; on the contrary, the sexual act was looked upon as an act of worship" and even considered the path to immortality (Bullough, 1976). Around the same time that Augustine was writing his Confessions, the Kama Sutra, a detailed Indian manual on sex, was written; similar books were in China and Japan. They glorified sexual pleasures and their diversity. Such differences in attitudes towards sex continue to exist in our time. In this chapter we will look at the history of sex in the Western world; other cultures are discussed in subsequent chapters.

The art of the East has long been distinguished by its frank depiction of erotic scenes, as can be seen in this 18th-century painting.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as the Church gained more and more influence, early Christian attitudes towards sexuality were strengthened in Europe. Theology often became synonymous with the common law, and "official" attitudes towards sex (with the exception of sex for procreative purposes) were, in essence, aimed at its oppression. However, the church itself, while preaching temperance, behaved quite differently: "God's houses have often been hotbeds of debauchery" (Taylor, 1954).

During this period, new customs began to emerge among the upper classes, which led to a sharp division between real life and religious teachings. These customs, called "courtly love", created a new style of behavior in which women (at least high-ranking women) were elevated to a pedestal, and romanticism, mystery and valor were celebrated in songs, poems and books (Tannahill, 1988). Pure love was considered incompatible with sensual pleasure; sometimes lovers put this concept to the test by lying together in bed naked in order to refrain from sexual intimacy, to prove the fullness of their love. Needless to say, courtly love did not always remain as romantic and sublime as it was sung in verse and prose.

Almost at the very beginning of the era of courtly love, chastity belts appeared. With the help of these belts, husbands locked their wives, just as they kept their money under lock and key; it is possible that originally chastity belts were invented in order to prevent rape, but at the same time they served to protect "property".

Medieval chastity belts were usually made of metal and covered the woman's crotch, reaching to the back and abdomen. Two holes made it possible to send natural needs, but completely excluded sexual intercourse. At the hips, the belt was locked with a key, which the jealous spouse kept with him (Tannahill, 1980).

Renaissance of humanism and fine arts in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. was accompanied by some relaxation of sexual restrictions, as well as a lesser adherence to the dogmas of courtly love. The Protestant Church, led by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others, was generally more tolerant of sexual problems than the Catholic Church. For example, Luther, although his attitude towards sex can hardly be called liberal, believed that sex cannot be considered sinful in its very essence, just as chastity and celibacy are not in themselves signs of virtue. At that time, a massive epidemic of syphilis broke out in Europe, possibly imported from America, which probably somewhat limited sexual freedom.

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

When we discuss the customs that existed in one or another historical epoch, it must be remembered that they differed in different countries, in different strata of society or religious groups. There is evidence to suggest that England and France were quite tolerant of sex in the 1700s (Bullough, 1976), but colonial America was dominated by a Puritan ethic. Extramarital sex was frowned upon and family cohesion was praised; those guilty of premarital sex were punished with whips, pilloried, put in stocks, or forced to publicly repent. Some readers may be familiar with Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Badge of Courage, which describes colonial-era attitudes towards sex.

In America, puritan morality also captured the 19th century, although there was a split in views on sexual problems during this period. As American states expanded and cities became more cosmopolitan, ideas of sexual freedom found more and more adherents. In response to this turn of events in the 1820s and 1830s, a movement was formed in American society to combat prostitution and save the "fallen women" who practiced this trade (Pivar, 1973). Despite the organized opposition of the Society for the Suppression of the Deceit and Vice and the Society of Followers of the Seventh Commandment, prostitution flourished. In the early 1840s, the government brought cases against 351 brothels in Massachusetts alone, and by early civil war a guide to the most luxurious brothels in the big cities described 106 establishments in New York, 57 in Philadelphia, and dozens of others in Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, and Washington (Pivar, 1973).

By the middle of the 19th century, with the beginning of the Victorian era, there was a return to ostentatious modesty and restraint in Europe, but this time it had less to do with religious attitudes. The general trend in this era was the suppression of sexuality and a strong desire for modesty; this was necessary in view of the vaunted purity and innocence of women and children. As Taylor writes, "So subtle was the sensibility of the Victorians, so easily turned their thoughts to sex, that the most innocent acts were forbidden if they seemed to conjure up seductive images. It became considered discourteous to offer a lady a chicken leg." This conservatism extended to clothes that did not even reveal the neck and did not allow even a glimpse of the ankle (Taylor, 1954). Today, the hypocrisy of that time seems incredible to us: in some houses, crinolines were put on the legs of the piano, and books by authors of the opposite sex were placed side by side on the shelves only if they were husband and wife (Sussman, 1976).

In America, despite the strong influence of Victorianism, various currents periodically shook the moral foundations. So, in 1870, the city council of St. Louis found a loophole in the laws of the state that allowed the legalization of prostitution, which caused a storm of indignation throughout the country. Societies for the fight against sexual promiscuity were again formed, finding allies among the fighters against the use of alcohol. In 1886, in 25 states, it was recognized that those who had reached the age of ten were considered adults (which contributed to the flourishing of child prostitution), but by 1895, thanks to public resistance, such an early term was preserved only in 5 states, and in 8 states the age of majority was raised to 18 years .

Although attitudes towards sex were generally negative in the Victorian era, it was this era that was marked by the emergence of the sexual "underground" - the widespread distribution of pornographic literature and drawings (Marcus, 1967). Prostitution was common in Europe; in the 60s. In the 19th century, the British Parliament passed a law legalizing and regulating prostitution. In addition, Victorian false modesty in sexual behavior and attitudes did not extend to all sections of society (Gay, 1983). The middle and lower classes did not resort to pretense, as was customary in the upper circles. Extreme poverty forced many lower-class young women into prostitution, and middle-class women - contrary to the ideal of the submissive and sexless Victorian lady - not only experienced sexual feelings and desires, but also behaved in this regard in much the same way as modern women. In the Victorian era, women lived sexually (and enjoyed it) with their lawful husbands, and sometimes even started passionate affairs, as can be seen from the numerous diaries that have come down to us, in which they described in detail the number and quality of their orgasms (Gay, 1983). Thus, a survey on the sexual behavior of women, written in 1892 by a lady named Clelia Duel Mosher, has recently been discovered, which contains further evidence that it would be wrong to consider the Victorian era completely anti-sexual. An interesting point of view on the sexuality of women in this era was also expressed by Haller and Haller (Haller, Haller, 1977).

It is clear that many women in the Victorian era suffered from repressive attitudes towards sex, but a closer look at this problem gives the impression that those women who contributed to the emergence of ideas of hypocrisy are actually very close to today's feminists. Victorian women sought a kind of sexual freedom by denying their sexuality...in an attempt to avoid treating themselves as objects intended for sexual enjoyment. Their feigned modesty was a mask under which it was convenient to hide the "radical" efforts to gain individual freedom.

Science and medicine fully reflected the anti-sexualism of this era. Masturbation has been stigmatized this way and that, accused of damaging the brain and nervous system and causing insanity and a wide variety of other illnesses (Bullough and Bullough, 1977; Haller and Haller, 1977; Tannahill, 1980). Women were seen as having little or no non-sexuality and should be ranked below men both physically and intellectually. In 1878, the prestigious British Medical Journal published letters from doctors claiming that meat touched by a woman during her menstrual period was unfit for food. Even such an eminent scientist as the father of evolutionary theory, Charles Darwin, in his book "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection" (1871) wrote that "A man is braver, more pugnacious and more energetic than a woman and has a more inventive mind" and that "in his mental abilities a man, obviously superior to a woman."

AT late XIX century, the German psychiatrist Richard von Kraft-Ebing created a detailed classification of sexual disorders. In his book "Sexual psychopathy" (Psychopathia Sexualis, 1886), withstood 12 editions, this problem is considered deeply and comprehensively. Krafft-Ebing's views have remained dominant for more than 75 years (Brecher, 1975). His influence had both positive and negative aspects: on the one hand, Krafft-Ebing insisted on a sympathetic attitude of physicians to the so-called sexual perversions and on the revision of laws regarding sexual crimes, and on the other hand, in his book sex, crime and violence were sort of lumped together. He paid much attention to those aspects of sexuality that he considered anomalous: sadomasochism (sexual satisfaction derived from inflicting pain on one's partner, or pain inflicted on oneself), homosexuality, fetishism (sexual satisfaction derived from objects associated with a particular person, and not from himself) and bestiality (sex with animals). Kraft-Ebing very often resorted to gloomy examples (sexual murders, cannibalism, corpse laying and others), which he described on the same pages as less frightening sexual perversions, and therefore many readers of his book had an aversion to almost all forms sexual behaviour. Nevertheless, Kraft-Ebing is often referred to as the founder of modern sexology.

The twentieth century

By the beginning of the XX century. the study of sexuality began to be carried out by more objective methods. Although Victorian ideas still persisted in certain segments of society, the research of such serious scientists as Albert Moll, Magnus Hirschfeld, Ivan Bloch and Havelock Ellis, combined with Freud's dynamic ideas, began a dramatic turn in attitudes towards sex.

FREUD

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), more successfully than anyone before or after him, demonstrated the centrality of sexuality in people's lives. Freud's ingenious discoveries are the result not only of his own observations, but also of his ability to generalize and formulate the ideas of other researchers (Sulloway, 1979). According to Freud, sexuality is the main force motivating all human behavior, and the main cause of all forms of neurosis - a disease, the most striking manifestation of which is a sense of anxiety and a violation of mental adaptation while maintaining an adequate perception of reality. Developing ideas expressed by other sexologists between 1880 and 1905. (Kern 1973; Sulloway 1979), he proved the existence of sexuality in infants and children and formulated detailed theory psychosexual development of the person (see ch. 8).

Freud created many new concepts related to sexuality. The most famous of these, the Oedipus complex, postulates the inevitable sexual attraction of a little boy to his mother, which is accompanied by a mixture of such conflicting feelings as love, hate, fear and rivalry experienced by the child for his father. Freud also believed that boys are preoccupied with the possibility of losing the penis as some terrible form of retribution (castration fear), while girls feel a certain inferiority and envy due to their lack of a penis (penis desire). According to Freud, this conflict exists mainly at the level of the subconscious, i.e. at a level deeper than the conscious perception of the environment. On this richest theoretical basis, Freud created the clinical method called psychoanalysis; using his method, he investigated and treated conflicts that arise at the subconscious level and lead to psychological problems. Despite the fact that many modern sexologists disagree with Freud's concepts, as we will discuss in detail in subsequent chapters, psychoanalysis is still widely used to treat patients.

ELLIS

Havelock Ellis, thanks to his numerous works, became one of the most respected among the first sexologists.

Around the same time, the English physician Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) published a six-volume work entitled A Study in the Psychology of Sexuality (1897-1910). Ellis anticipated much of what Freud later wrote about in his analysis of childhood sexuality. For example, he acknowledged widespread masturbation by both sexes at all ages, objected to Victorian notions that "decent" women were sexually undesirable, and emphasized the psychological rather than physical causes of many sexual problems. In his works, attention was also paid to the diversity of human sexual behavior; they served as an important counterbalance to the influence of Krafft-Ebing, who considered sexual deviations to be pathological (Brecher, 1969, 1975).

1929-1950s

By the end of the First World War, both in Europe and in America, significant changes in society began, taking it further and further away from the settings of the Victorian era. Greater social and economic freedom, the availability of cars, the rise of jazz made people's sexual behavior less and less restrained, and this was accompanied by corresponding changes in fashion, dance and literature. Women actively participated in the approach of the sexual revolution. Margaret Sanger led the birth control movement in the United States. Catherine Davies conducted a survey of the sex lives of 2,200 women, the results of which were published in 1922 and 1927. as a series of scientific articles, and then as a separate book (Davis, 1929). The Englishwoman Mary Slopes wrote a candid guide to married life that was a great success on both sides of the Atlantic (It is interesting to note that Slopes, already a Ph.D. after her marriage to another scientist, Dr. Reginald Cates, she began to feel that she was deprived of something important in life.After sorting out the reasons for her own dissatisfaction and making sure that her marriage was untenable, Dr. Stope filed for divorce, received it, and subsequently took up writing a book to help other women avoid similar problems (Hanson, 1977).). By 1926 the gynecologist Theodor Van de Velde had published his book The Ideal Marriage, which detailed a wide range of techniques used in sexual intercourse and recognized the permissibility of oral-genital sex; his book immediately became a bestseller all over the world.

The Roaring Twenties ended in a stock market crash. During the Great Depression that followed, concerns about daily bread pushed sexual problems into the background.

The entry of England and the United States into the second world war, the depth and drama of the events of those years created the background for a complete change in the nature of sexual relations on both sides of the Atlantic. Women who had to work and even serve in the army suddenly felt economically free and independent, but this freedom also created an atmosphere of chaos of hasty marriages, divorces, loneliness and fear. While the husbands were fighting across the ocean, their wives had affairs; in turn, the men, once out of the house, used every opportunity for sexual entertainment. As one social historian wrote, “The lives and morals of many millions of people were deeply emotionally traumatized, and in the wartime disorder, many social inhibitions lost their restraining power. The desire to extract all that is possible from the present without thinking about the future , led to the pursuit of pleasure and to promiscuity" (Castello, 1985).

In the post-war period, women began to be forced out of industrial enterprises and institutions and returned to their rightful place, i.e. to the house. During this period, characterized by a high divorce rate and significant changes in society, another sexologist suddenly gained wide popularity, who was destined to leave an indelible mark on the history of science.

KINSI

Alfred Kinzie's research on sex problems has been canceled by the seal of immense enthusiasm, although the attitude towards his methods and the results obtained was very ambiguous.

In the summer of 1938, Alfred Kinzie (1894-1956), a zoologist at the University of pc. Indiana, was invited to lecture on marriage at a local college. Struck by the lack of data on human sexual behavior, he took advantage of his status as a teacher and distributed questionnaires to students in order to collect information about their sex life. Subsequently, Kinzie came to the conclusion that a more reliable method for collecting such material is personal interviews, since they allow for greater flexibility and allow a number of details to be clarified. Ultimately, he interviewed thousands of men and women across the country. Together with his co-authors and colleagues Wardell Pomeroy and Clyde Martin, Kinsey published on January 5, 1948, the monumental work Sexual Behavior of a Man, and 5 years later, in collaboration with Paul Jebhard, Sexual Behavior of a Woman (Kinsey et al., 1953) .

In his writings, Kinsey summarized data from interviews with 12,000 men and women from all walks of life, and many of the results were startling. So, for example, according to his data, 37% of American men, after reaching maturity, at least once participated in homosexual intercourse, brought to orgasm; 40% of men cheated on their wives, and 62% of the women surveyed masturbated.

The publication of Male Sexual Behavior immediately brought Kinzie's work to the attention of the general public. By mid-March, over 100,000 copies of his book had been sold, and for 27 weeks it remained on the bestseller list.

Despite the fact that Kinzie and his colleagues limited themselves to describing human sexual behavior, while not giving any moral or medical assessments, their book caused severe criticism in methodological and moral terms. The prestigious Life magazine considered it "an attack on the family as the basic unit of society, a denial of moral principles and a glorification of promiscuity" (Wickware, 1948). Margaret Mead criticized Kinzie for treating sex "as a faceless, meaningless act" (New York Times, April 1, 1948), and a professor at Columbia University argued that "a law is needed to prohibit research devoted exclusively to sex" (ibid.). However, all critics agreed that Kinzie "did for sex what Columbus did for geography."

In general, the first book of Kinzie was received positively (Palmore, 1952), which cannot be said about the second part of his work - "The Sexual Behavior of Woman". Many newspapers denounced the book in their editorials and refused to print reviews of it in their news columns. Thus, The Times (New Philadelphia, Ohio) endorsed this decision, declaring: "We believe that this book will disgust a large part of our readers" (August 20, 1953). Church ministers and educators called Kinzie's materials immoral, directed against the family, and even having communist overtones.

Kinzie died in 1956 bitter and disappointed, but the results of his work were fully appreciated later. One of the merits of this scientist is that, together with his colleagues, he created the Institute for Sexual Research at the University of pc. Indiana, which continues to be a major research center to this day.

1950s

After Kinzie's death, a time came in the United States that was characterized by greater sexual freedom than before. Premarital sexual relations became common, although they occurred mainly between people who were about to marry. In books (for example, in the sensational novel "Peyton Place" at the time) and in films (mostly imported to the United States from overseas), explicit sex scenes appeared; sexual themes even appeared in music. One reviewer, horrified by what he was about to see and hear, noted grimly that the "sexualization" of music makes it "naked, seductive... passionate and perverse, and the lowing of the performers is accompanied by the rotation and bending of their bodies in rhythms, sexual the shade of which is beyond doubt" (Sorokin, 1956).

The ideal woman of the 50s. - this is a charming, but brainless creature - about what Marilyn Monroe portrayed in her films. All the thoughts of such a woman should be directed to marriage and motherhood. In January 1950 Harper's Store remarked: "If an American girl wears ordinary spectacles and not spectacles fashionable form with colored glasses, then she may think that everything is lost for her - no one will date her. "And C's magazine (January, 1950) seriously advised its readers to wear padded bras, without dedicating their future husband to this before the wedding."

Albert Ellis (A. Ellis, 1959) briefly summarized the prevailing mores of those years as follows: "The main rule underlying our sexual behavior can be expressed with absolute and terrifying clarity in two phrases: 1) if you want to have sex, because that it is PLEASANT to you, you should not do it; 2) if it is your DUTY, then it is necessary to fulfill it.

1960s

In the early 1960s In the United States, the sexual revolution began, which turned out to be the most notable event of all that the country had ever experienced. Among the causes of the sexual revolution, the following are usually cited: 1) the appearance of birth control pills; 2) youth protest against the existing bigotry; 3) the revival of feminism in a modern form; 4) greater openness in society and greater sexual looseness. It is impossible to give a definitive historical assessment of the significance of each of these factors in bringing about the sexual revolution, but it is certain that they all played an important role in this.

The birth control pill made sex safer and allowed millions of people to view sex as a way to express their love for a being of the opposite sex, rather than as a way to procreate. The availability of pills gave women a sense of freedom and probably had a greater impact on their sexual behavior than is commonly believed. The youth movement, which began at the same time as the civil rights movement and expanded with the growing loss of faith in the justice of the Vietnam War, led teenagers to challenge their parents' generation. This challenge was expressed not only in clothes, long hair and music of the younger generation, but also in drug use and sexual freedom (their slogan is "Love, not war").

The youth of the sixties, who realized political and social injustice, enthusiastically joined the women's movement as well. Since birth control pills have given women much greater control over their own destiny, it is not surprising that their sexual freedom has become increasingly accepted as a natural state of affairs.

Public reaction to the sexual revolution was mixed. Some warmly welcomed this movement, others considered it to be something temporary, doomed in the end to extinction. It can be argued that a significant part of the population followed this coup with disapproval and anxiety. Most people were concerned about the destruction of the moral foundations of American society taking place before their eyes. Nevertheless, sexuality began to be talked about more, demonstrated and studied; in the sixties, bars with half-naked waitresses appeared, the naked body became familiar to Broadway shows. Finally, it was during these years that a study of human sexual function was published, which made a real revolution in the approach to this problem.

MASTERS AND JOHNSON

Kinsey and his collaborators studied the nature of human sexuality using the interview method. During the conversation, they found out how, when and how often people have sex. Subsequently, the scientific study of sex was expanded within the framework of the same methodology by adding questions that remained unresolved. The new methodological approach was pioneered by physician William Masters and psychologist Virginia Johnson at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis.

According to Masters and Johnson, to understand all the complexities of human sexual function, people need to know the anatomy and physiology of the reproductive system, as well as psychology and sociology. The authors believed that for the solution of human sexual problems, the data obtained as a result of studying the sexual reactions of animals are insufficient, and only a direct approach will provide the necessary information. In 1954, they began to observe and record the physical characteristics of sexual arousal in humans. By 1965, material had been accumulated on 10,000 episodes of sexual activity in 382 women and 312 men; based on these data, the article "Human Sexual Responses" (Masters, Johnson, 1966) was published, which immediately attracted attention. Some experts quickly grasped the importance of these discoveries, while others were shocked by the methods used. Among the loud accusations of a "mechanical approach" and cries of insulting moral feelings, there were relatively few voices of those who understood that this physiological information is not an end in itself, that it is necessary for the development of methods for treating people with sexual disorders (It should be noted that all medical science is based on a knowledge of normal anatomy and physiology, without which essential progress in the treatment of pathology is impossible.In 1966, when the article "Human Sexual Reactions" was published, many doctors seemed to have forgotten this fact, which would be completely indisputable if it was about the study of heart or skin diseases.Our file cabinets for that year contain many indignant letters from doctors criticizing our physiological research for being obscene and deviating from traditional medical "respectability").

1970s and 1980s

In the 1970-1980s. the attitude towards sex has become much more open. In 1970, Masters and Johnson published Human Sexual Inferiority, which marked a new approach to the treatment of sexual disorders that had previously been treated for a long time and, as a rule, without success. With the advent of this book, which, in particular, describes an effective two-week course of therapy, in which failures are only 20%, a new medical specialty has arisen - sex therapy. Following this, in just 10 years, several thousand sex therapy clinics were opened in the country, and thanks to doctors such as Helen Kaplan and Jack Einon, other therapeutic approaches began to develop.

Dozens of special books about sex have been published; among these, the best and most successful (circulation over 9 million copies) was probably "The Joy of Sex" by Alex Comfort (Comfort, 1972). Television also played a significant role in the sexual revolution, covering in a number of programs topics that had previously been banned. Movies, which did not want to be left behind, became more overtly sexual, and in the early days of the American video market, porn films were in the greatest demand.

At the same time, events took place that influenced the attitude of Americans towards sexuality: 1) cohabitation before marriage became commonplace; 2) in 1976, the US Supreme Court legalized abortion, which, of course, increased their safety, but at the same time provoked controversy in society about the morality of such a decision; 3) in 1974, the American Psychiatric Association decided to exclude homosexuality from the list of mental disorders, which created the ground for strengthening the gay rights movement; 4) thanks to the efforts of scientists and activists of the women's movement, society realized that rape is a crime generated not by passion, but by cruelty (Burgess, Holmstrom, 1974; Brownmiller, 1975; Mertzer, 1976). As a result, the procedure for hearing cases of rape was changed by law, and centers for providing psychological assistance to victims of rape began to appear one after another in the country; 5) the development of in vitro fertilization methods made possible the birth in 1978 of the world's first "test-tube baby" (at present, the number of children conceived in this way has exceeded 15,000). In these years, the procedure of bearing a child by a surrogate mother, which is very controversial from an ethical point of view, is becoming more widespread.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s. certain forces in society began to resist what they considered over-permissiveness and even immorality. For example, attempts were made to block sex education in free schools and to counter any form of "promiscuous" sexual behavior, which included anything but marital sex. The right to life movement protested against the legalization of abortion and unsuccessfully tried to introduce an amendment to the constitution that would prohibit abortion in all circumstances. In 1983, the Reagan administration tried to pass a law, ironically called the "denunciation law," which required salespeople to tell parents that their children were buying contraceptives. Fortunately, this proposal has forever remained only a bill.

Of particular concern in society at the turn of the 1970-80s. caused epidemics of hitherto unknown sexually transmitted diseases: genital herpes, mainly among heterosexuals, and AIDS, which in the United States initially affected men, both homosexual and bisexual, but soon spread to heterosexuals. (AIDS, or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, results from infection with a virus that attacks the body's immune system, leading to a variety of serious infectious, cancerous, and nervous diseases.) The AIDS epidemic, sometimes called the modern plague, is especially worrisome because it firstly, this disease is now invariably fatal and, secondly, according to expert opinion, the number of people infected with the AIDS virus (HIV) in the United States has already reached two million. Since both genital herpes and AIDS are indisputably associated with promiscuity, it is believed that the epidemics of these diseases are a kind of retribution sent down by God to mankind for its sinful sexual behavior.

The avalanche of reports of AIDS that hit people, as well as the realization that one can definitely avoid infection only by completely abstaining from sexual activity or limiting it to only one, obviously healthy partner, forced millions of citizens to change their sexual behavior, with some choosing celibacy, while others became more selective in their sexual partners (Kolodny and Kolodny, 1987; Stevens, 1987; Winkelsteinet al., 1987). Some people have taken known precautions (such as using condoms). A detailed analysis of changes in the sexual life of different strata of society in connection with the spread of AIDS has yet to be carried out, but it seems to us that in the 1990s. an increasing number of people are beginning to think about their sexual behavior.

Of course, we cannot predict whether the changes and trends that seem significant today will really have any lasting impact on our sexual behavior in the future. Nor can we be sure that, a hundred years later, historians will not label our era in one word (like "Victorian") and will not reduce the many complexities of our sexual attitudes to a single concept. The only certainty is that our attitudes and behavior will continue to change; however, it is impossible to predict with any certainty which direction these changes will take.

Determining your personal relationship with abortion

One of the sex-related issues that is particularly divisive in society today is the issue of abortion. If you are interested in knowing how you yourself feel about this problem, express your opinion on the positions below.

This voluntary study by you is not a test. An opinion on any point cannot be right or wrong, so just express it as honestly as possible. You are invited to express your attitude towards legal abortion (removal of the fetus from the mother's body during the first three months of pregnancy, to which the mother goes voluntarily and which is performed by a person with a medical education).

Express your opinion on each item by circling one of the suggested answers.

Meanings of letter answers: BS - unconditionally agree; C - agree; START - agree, but not quite; SNA - rather disagree; NS - disagree; KNS - strongly disagree.

1. The Supreme Court should ban abortion in the US.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

2. Abortion is a good way to end an unwanted pregnancy.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

3. A mother should feel obliged to give birth to the child she has conceived.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

4. Abortion is unacceptable under any circumstances.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

BS S START SNS NS KNS

6. The decision to have an abortion should be made by the pregnant woman.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

7. Every child conceived has the right to be born into the world.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

8. A pregnant woman who does not want to have a child should be advised to have an abortion.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

BS S START SNS NS KNS

10. People should not judge those who decide to have an abortion.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

11. Abortion is perfectly acceptable for an unmarried underage girl.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

12. Individuals should not be given the right to decide the life or death of the fetus.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

13. You should not bring unwanted children into this world.

BS S START SNS NS KNS

First stage

For items 2,5,6,8,10,11 and 13

BS = 6 points

C = 5 points

START = 4 points

SNA = 3 points

NA = 2 points

KNS = 1 point

For items 1,3,4,7,9,12 and 14

BS = 1 point

C = 2 points

START = 3 points

SNA = 4 points

NA = 5 points

KNS = 6 points

Step 2: Add up your scores for all 14 items.

0-15: Absolutely for the preservation of the fetus

16-26: Rather for the preservation of the fetus

27-43: Not sure

44-55: Rather pro-abortion

56-70: Definitely for abortion

CONCLUSIONS

1. Human sexuality is a multidimensional phenomenon that has biological, psychosocial, behavioral, medical, moral and cultural aspects. None of these aspects of sexuality can be considered absolutely dominant.

2. History teaches us that attitudes towards sex and sexual behavior vary greatly from time to time and from country to country. For more than 2,000 years, religion has been a major force in shaping attitudes towards sex. Emerged in the 19th century The science of sexology—from the early work of Kraft-Ebing, Havelock Ellis, and Sigmund Freud, to the sensational scientific research of Kinzie and Masters and Johnson—has had an enormous impact on modern understanding of sex and sexuality.

3. One should beware of overly simplistic interpretation of sexual behavior. For example, despite the sanctimonious attitude towards sex characteristic of the Victorian era, during this period prostitution flourished, pornographic literature was widespread, and the middle and lower classes paid little attention to the sexual pretentiousness of high society.

4. 1960s considered to be the beginning of the sexual revolution. Four factors contributed to its approach: the availability of contraceptives, the protest of young people, the struggle of women for their rights and greater openness in society, both in the discussion of sex and in its manifestations.

5. Anxiety caused by new epidemics of sexually transmitted diseases, especially AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), together with an increasing trend towards conservatism, seems to have stalled the sexual revolution. Nowadays, millions of people are starting to be more cautious about sex; if the AIDS epidemic intensifies, further changes in this direction are likely to occur.

6. Predicting what kind of shifts in sexual thinking and behavior will occur in the future is difficult to say the least. We can only be sure that our attitudes and behavior will certainly change in one way or another.

Questions for reflection

1. The authors argue that "there is no such system of sexual values ​​that would be true for everyone and everyone, and that no moral code can be indisputably true and applicable in all cases." Do you agree with this? Or are there some sexual values ​​that are undeniably and universally considered either true or false?

2. The text states that sexuality has biological, psychological and social aspects. However, many people and some religious teachings consider sexual contacts justified only if they are for the purpose of procreation. How would our attitudes about acceptable sexual expression change if that were true? What kind of sexual relations would society prescribe, and what would it prohibit?

3. Some people consider Kinzie, Freud, and even Masters and Johnson to be "dirty old men" because they are interested in the scientific study of sexuality. How widespread is this attitude and is it justified? What can motivate a person to devote his whole life to the study of sex?

4. "Love, not war" - that was the slogan of the sixties. Is there any connection between these two activities? Is there any relationship between the suppression of sex and war, or between sexual freedom and peace? Or maybe this slogan is just a nice-sounding, but meaningless phrase?

5. Has there really been a real sexual revolution in the past few decades, or is it a myth? Is our society moving towards more (or less) diversity and freedom in sexual manifestations?

6. As this chapter argues, prostitution and pornography flourished during the Victorian era. Is there some kind of causal relationship here? Does the suppression of sexuality contribute to the development of underground forms of its manifestation? In addition, the repression of sexuality characteristic of the Victorian era affected men and women, as well as members of different social strata, in different ways. How can this be explained?

(1915-12-27 ) K:Wikipedia:Articles without images (type: not specified)

Biography

Scientific activity and publications

Masters paired with Johnson published many works, some of which became bestsellers, as they touched on the topic of sex, which was previously taboo. Scientists' research into the human sexual response cycle, arousal and orgasm, sexual disorders and dysfunctions have made them popular authors.

In culture

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Notes

An excerpt characterizing Masters, William

"No, I can't believe it," Sonya repeated. - I do not understand. How did you love one person for a whole year and suddenly ... After all, you only saw him three times. Natasha, I don't believe you, you're being naughty. In three days, forget everything and so ...
“Three days,” Natasha said. “I think I have loved him for a hundred years. I feel like I've never loved anyone before him. You cannot understand this. Sonya, wait, sit down here. Natasha hugged and kissed her.
“I was told that this happens and you heard it right, but now I have only experienced this love. It's not like before. As soon as I saw him, I felt that he was my master and I was his slave, and that I could not help but love him. Yes, slave! What he tells me, I will do. You don't understand this. What should I do? What should I do, Sonya? Natasha said with a happy and frightened face.
“But think about what you are doing,” Sonya said, “I can’t leave it like that. Those secret letters... How could you let him do that? she said with horror and disgust, which she could hardly conceal.
“I told you,” Natasha answered, “that I have no will, how can you not understand this: I love him!”
“So I won’t let it happen, I’ll tell you,” Sonya cried out with bursting tears.
- What are you, for God's sake ... If you tell me, you are my enemy, - Natasha spoke. - You want my misfortune, you want us to be separated ...
Seeing Natasha's fear, Sonya burst into tears of shame and pity for her friend.
"But what happened between you?" she asked. - What did he tell you? Why doesn't he go to the house?
Natasha did not answer her question.
“For God’s sake, Sonya, don’t tell anyone, don’t torture me,” Natasha begged. “Remember not to interfere in such matters. I opened to you...
But what are these secrets for? Why doesn't he go to the house? Sonya asked. “Why doesn’t he directly seek your hand?” After all, Prince Andrei gave you complete freedom, if so; but I don't believe it. Natasha, have you thought about the secret reasons?
Natasha looked at Sonya with surprised eyes. Apparently, this question was presented to her for the first time and she did not know how to answer it.

In fact, women do not know as much about men as they imagine. For many centuries they have striven to excel in a special art of adapting to them. But adapting to men does not mean understanding them. Women are often mistaken in thinking that a man's life is easy enough, at least compared to a woman's lot, and have no idea about the complex internal struggle that occurs during the transformation of a naive boy into a mature man. They don't realize how long and hard way a boy and a man should go through, who must separate from his own, irreplaceable, caring mother and embark on a path of trials that is completely different from the one she passed, where it is no longer possible to use either maternal experience or advice. From this point of view, it can be noted that the girl should strive to be like her mother, while the boy should learn to be different from her. At the same time, such a difference should not spoil his life, turning into antagonism or fear. Unfortunately, today Western culture is in such a state that it often becomes difficult to avoid this disastrous result, despite the obvious social consequences that follow from it.

This is why the Jungian insight approach is so useful in explaining the never-ending conflict between men and women. Johnson very well explains this eternal "war of the sexes" with a very simple but skillful interpretation of ancient myths (in our case, the myth of Parsifal).

To the uninitiated reader, a book that interprets medieval myth in a modern way may seem didactic and stupid. This is not true! Johnson has a rare combination of discursiveness and captivating simplicity of style, and his clear exposition of the Jungian concepts necessary to explain his approach penetrates the fabric of the text without much difficulty. The deep meaning of the novel lies precisely in its vagueness, and I am absolutely sure that most readers will not put the book down without reading it to the end. But, having finished reading, you can be sure that you remember it very well, and from time to time you will be drawn to return to it, as it attracts something very close to itself, and with each next reading you will have more and more insights.

In other words, I highly recommend reading this book. It will entertain you, inform you, awaken your thinking, because it is mysterious and at the same time poetic. Men who read it will certainly learn more about themselves, and women, especially those who, unfortunately, still see men as “enemies”, will be helped to look at them with different eyes.

Ruth Tiffany Barnhouse teacher of psychiatry

Harvard University

Mythology and understanding of God

Introduction to the story of the Sacred Chalice

For primitive people, mythology was sacred, as if the human soul was contained in archaic myths. The life of a primitive man is born and develops in a mythological cradle, therefore the death of mythology means destruction human life and the human spirit, as happened to the myths of the American Indians.

However, for most of our contemporaries, the word "myth" has become synonymous with the words "fiction" and "illusion". This confusion arose from the false idea that myths were born in the process of naive attempts ancient man explain various natural phenomena, in which science has succeeded much more. But now some psychologists and anthropologists are helping us to see the myth in a completely different light and understand that it reflects the deep psychological and spiritual processes inherent in the human psyche. First of all, we should mention C. G. Jung, who in his concept of the collective unconscious emphasized that myths are spontaneous manifestations of the psychological and spiritual truth hidden in the unconscious. According to Jung, myths contain a deep meaning for every person, because in them, in the form of a story, “archetypal” content emerges, that is, universal and reliable pictures of life.

Myth has the same relation to all mankind as a dream has to an individual. A dream conveys to a person an important and necessary psychological truth about himself. The myth reveals an important psychological truth about humanity as a whole. A person who understands dreams understands himself better. A person who comprehends the inner meaning of a myth comes into contact with the universal spiritual questions that life puts before him.

It is likely that among all Western myths about a man, the story of the Holy Grail is unique. Based on pagan and early Christian motifs, the myth of the Sacred Chalice finally took shape by the 12th-13th centuries. Different versions of it appeared almost simultaneously in France, England, Wales and some other European countries, as if the life hidden in the depths suddenly broke into the light. The Christian content of this myth, its latest version and its roots in European soil give it a special significance in the context of Western spiritual culture.

The basis for this book was a course of lectures on the Sacred Cup given by Robert Johnson at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in the spring of 1969. His interpretation of the myth is based on the principles of the Jungian concept. It seems to me that it makes sense to dwell briefly on the most essential aspects of Jung's concept.

The main idea of ​​Jungian psychology is the process of individuation. Individuation takes place throughout life; following this process, a person is constantly approaching the ideal integral personality, determined by God's providence. This approach consists in the gradual expansion of human consciousness and the growing ability of the conscious personality to the maximum reflection of its self. By Ego we mean the center of our consciousness, the Self within us, that part of us with which we have consciously identified. We call the Self the whole personality structure, the potential personality that is within us from the moment of birth and seeks every opportunity to discover and manifest itself through the medium of the Ego throughout human life.

The process of individuation involves a person in a circle of very serious psychological and spiritual problems. A very difficult problem is the beginning of reconciliation with one's own shadow - a dark, rejected and even dangerous part of the personality that comes into conflict with conscious attitudes and ideals. Each of us, wishing to achieve wholeness, must somehow find with a shadow mutual language. The rejection of the shadow side of the personality leads to its splitting and constant conflict between consciousness and the unconscious. Acceptance and integration of the shadow side of the personality is always a difficult and painful process, which nevertheless necessarily leads to the establishment of psychological balance and harmony, otherwise completely unattainable.

An even more difficult task for a man is the integration of an element of unconscious femininity, and for a woman - masculinity. One of Jung's most valuable discoveries - androgyny - is a combination of masculinity and femininity in a person. But, as a rule, having identified with his masculinity, a man, so to speak, hides his femininity deep inside, and a woman, accordingly, does the same with her inner masculinity. Jung called this inner woman, existing in a man, anima, and the man, existing inside a woman, animus.

The integration of a man with his femininity is a complex and psychologically delicate issue. Until this process is completed, a man should not hope to be able to penetrate the secret of his self. The legend of the Sacred Cup appeared at the very historical moment when a man began to realize his femininity in a new way. This story tells, first of all, about the difficult but necessary struggle that takes place in a man in the process of realizing his inner femininity and establishing contact with it. It follows that the legend of the Sacred Chalice is primarily a story about the process of male individuation. A man reading this book can find in it key points of reference in the development of his own personality, corresponding to the main points in the development of the storyline of the legend. Since a woman has to live with a man, she, too, may develop a certain interest in the hidden meaning of the legend of the Sacred Chalice, since to understand it means to understand a man at critical moments in his life.

Masters and W. Johnson searched for many, many years ideal conditions for the female orgasm. "What's the catch? “- speaking in unscientific language, pundits asked. Maybe according to the size of the genitals? In the duration of sexual intercourse? In the skill of partners?

Prominent American sexologists W. Masters and W. Johnson have been looking for ideal conditions for a female orgasm for many, many years. "What's the catch? ” - speaking in unscientific language, pundits asked.
Maybe according to the size of the genitals? In the duration of sexual intercourse? In the skill of partners? Or there are simply women who always have an orgasm, there are more “capricious”, who are given special conditions, but there are simply frigid ones. And there is nothing to sweat here?
Many years of scientific torment and humanity has been blessed with the 5-20 theory.
Scientists have found that a woman can experience an orgasm only if the following conditions are met:
The first condition of the female orgasm. The absence of such a problem in a woman as anorgasmia - the clinical inability of a woman to experience an orgasm. Anorgasmia is one of the rather serious problems of female sexology.
The second condition of the female orgasm. The presence of a pronounced sympathy for a partner. Without a positive attitude towards a man, nothing will work! This rule is not as obvious as it seems.
Women are extremely emotional beings. And if momentary anxiety for anything (lack of money, problems at work, and even a “poorly powdered nose”) overpowers a steady, but familiar sympathy for a man, there will be no orgasm.
The third condition of the female orgasm. A woman should be tuned in to good sex, to the joy of physical intimacy. Oddly enough, strong love and high degree spiritual intimacy between a man and a woman can interfere with orgasm. That is, deep in the subconscious of a woman sits the thought: "I feel good with him and without an orgasm." And that's all. There is no orgasm. Physical intimacy should be a mandatory component of complete happiness.
The fourth condition of the female orgasm. A man should know well the psychology of his woman. And skillfully use its features. Such cute nuances as coffee in bed, scratching the back, slippers served on time and a soft kiss on the back of the head can be more effective than the Kama Sutra in its full edition.
The fifth condition of the female orgasm. A man knows the physiological characteristics of a woman well and uses his knowledge in practice.
But at this point, the "Kama Sutra" is very necessary. And other knowledge too.
We figured out the five conditions of the female orgasm, but what about the number "20"?
And all of the above has nothing to do with the name "5-20"! "5-20" is about something else. W. Masters and W. Johnson argue that, subject to these five conditions, a woman is able to achieve orgasm if a man has a penis at least 5 cm long and the duration of sexual intercourse is 20 seconds! This is the 5-20 pattern.

In 1959, American sexologists W. Masters and W. Johnson for the first time began to put into practice an innovative therapeutic program for that time - sex therapy. Sometimes it is also called dual sex therapy, meaning that both partners are involved in it. However, the very concept of treatment with sex already contains this meaning, because in the understanding of intimacy, in the understanding of most people, two people always participate.

The program is fundamentally different from all previous treatments. Masters and Johnson for the first time drew attention not to individuals with certain sexual disorders, but to the couple as a whole. Today it seems obvious, because any sexual dysfunction cannot but affect both partners. A healthy and loving intimate life is also possible only if their relationship is in harmony. Therefore, both partners must make efforts to improve the situation.

Thanks to Masters and Johnson, the main focus of behavioral therapy has shifted from the person to the couple, to the relationship between a man and a woman. In addition, this strategy promotes the participation of both partners in the treatment process, who during this period learn mutual understanding and provide emotional support to each other.

A few words about the theoretical foundations of the Masters and Johnson program. It is based on the principles of behavioral therapy. Within the framework of the latter, any manifestations of sexual dysfunctions, regardless of the cause and condition, are interpreted as incorrect, inadequate behavior, which can be corrected using special techniques. Therefore, treatment in accordance with the program of Masters and Johnson is aimed at changing the wrong options for sexual behavior. In addition, it aims to form adequate relations both between the partners themselves and with the system of customs and values ​​characteristic of the society in which they live. The program consists of a preliminary conversation, a medical examination and the actual therapy. It is desirable that partners for the next 2 weeks be freed from work, home and other worries. Thanks to this, nothing will prevent them from focusing all their attention on relationships with each other.

Examination of each of the partners is carried out separately by sexologists of the same sex with them. During the first 2 days, events that precede sexual dysfunction are restored. Everything is discussed - childhood, puberty, premarital affairs, the history of marriage or partnership. All the details of the relationship, the level of self-esteem, as well as the individual characteristics of the visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory perception of each of the partners are clarified.

A medical examination is aimed at identifying any organic disorders that require therapeutic or possibly surgical intervention.

The information obtained about the physiological and psychological features patients is analyzed and summarized. Based on these data, a diagnosis is made and treatment tactics are developed. Then a joint consultation is held with the participation of all specialists and both partners. Doctors substantiate their own opinion about the causes of sexual dysfunction, reveal the true sources of fears, inadequate expectations, mistakes in relationships. Together with patients, specialists analyze in detail the mechanism of occurrence and development of sexual disorders that interfere with their harmonious intimate life. Attention is still focused on the sexual problems not of one of the partners, but of the couple as a whole, on the difficulties of relationships within it. Patients are set up to understand the common goal, cooperation, mutual assistance, encouragement and moral support for each other.

According to the authors of the sex therapy program, the most important of the problems is the lack of involvement of any of the partners, while both of them are equally responsible for all sexual disorders that exist in a couple. Masters and Johnson even introduced special term to designate such a position - "observer".

For example, the patient has psychogenic problems with erection. He is constantly worried about how well he will cope with the next "exam" on his male abilities. Instead of a joyful and natural increase in excitement, subsequent pleasure in the arms of a partner and blissful relaxation, a man is occupied exclusively with "self-observation". It does not allow him to turn off excessive control of consciousness and blocks the spontaneous development of events, which most often becomes the main reason for failure. Accordingly, each new failure increasingly deprives both partners of happiness and harmony of sexual intimacy.

Therefore, one of the main goals of therapy is to eliminate the fear of failure and exclude the possibility of the existence of such a passive "observer" in a couple. The solution of these difficult tasks would give both partners the opportunity for relaxed and free intimate communication, devoid of anxious focus on the result and tension leading to failure.

Therefore, therapy is structured in such a way that the partners' attention is switched from thoughts about sexual intercourse to alternative ways of enjoying, as well as to improving mutual understanding.

The first exercise is called "Sensual Focus". Sexual intercourse is temporarily prohibited, and this condition usually contributes to the inner freedom and creative self-disclosure of both partners.

The essence of the exercise is to acquire the skill of focusing your own sensory perceptions on various parts body, excluding the genitals and breasts. Partners gently touch each other, they discover new sensations caused by caresses.

The purpose of touch is not an attempt to sexually arouse a partner, but the discovery of new sensual pleasures outside of sexual intercourse. Since there is no need for intercourse (and, therefore, an erection), the man gets rid of the oppressive fear of possible failure. The vicious circle of "fear-introspection-failure-fear" loses its meaning. Freed from the humiliating fear of defeat, the man completely surrenders to his own sweet sensations caused by the caresses of his partner.

At this stage of the exercise, the man and woman are not tasked with guessing which touches excite the partner. Instead, you should, on the contrary, completely surrender to your own feelings.

It is advisable that patients remain silent during the exercise. This will allow them not to be distracted from bodily sensations. If any touch is unpleasant to one of the partners, he should try to express it, but without the help of words.

So, the exercise "Sensual Focus":

- serves as a wonderful means of getting rid of tension, stiffness and anxiety, which were previously caused by the need to conduct a "traditional" sexual intercourse. The fear of failure disappears, as a result of which the latter becomes unlikely;

- allows a man and a woman to experience previously unfamiliar sensual pleasures that are not associated with genital contact, and therefore get to know yourself and your partner better;

- thanks to gentle touches without words, it improves mutual understanding between partners, makes them more sensitive, develops intuition, brings them together psychologically and emotionally.

At this stage of the lesson, partners caress each other in turn. First, one touches the body of the other, and the latter focuses sensations, not expecting any traditional sexual reaction of his body, but simply tangibly plunging into them. Then the roles change.

At this stage, partners are encouraged to start using the hand-to-hand method, which also serves as body communication without words. This exercise is done in sequence. For example, at first a man caresses his partner, and she puts her hand on his hand and silently tells what kind of touch she wants: slow or faster, strong or weak, etc. Then the roles change. Moreover, the partner managing the process should not impose his wishes on the other at all.

The next stage of learning to focus the sensations of one's own body consists in simultaneous mutual caresses. Naturally, this enhances the pleasure experienced by partners.

The importance of this stage is also in overcoming the tendency to self-observation. In order to disconnect from tracking their own sexual reactions, the "observer" is advised to draw their attention to any part of the partner's body and completely surrender to the sensation of touching it.

Sexual arousal at this stage can be quite strong, but sexual contact with partners is still prohibited.

Further exercises are also aimed at focusing sensations and repeat the actions of the previous ones. Finally, the moment comes when the contact of the genitals is allowed, although without the introduction of the penis into the vagina. A woman, being on top, can play with her partner's penis, for example, touching her clitoris. Erection doesn't matter.

However, if one of the partners has anxiety or a desire to have sexual intercourse, both need to return to caresses that exclude touching the genitals. Attention should be focused on enjoying the game, and not on preparing for intercourse. When partners gain confidence at this level of exercise, ordinary sexual intercourse will no longer be accompanied by fear of failure or any other problems for them.

Behavioral therapy places great importance on masturbation. According to sexologists, sometimes it is recommended to resort to it:

- men with reduced sexual desire or with erection difficulties, to make sure that they have sexual desire and opportunities.

- women who have never had an orgasm. The use of a vibrator is allowed. The most preferred area for stimulation is the body of the clitoris. Also, in many women, strong sexual arousal causes an impact on the area called the "G-spot" and located on the front wall of the vagina.

Based on many years of successful experience in the use of sex therapy, Masters and Johnson developed additional concepts to their method, more fully revealing its essence. Let us briefly outline their content.

1. Treatment should be chosen according to the needs of a particular couple. Doctors have no right to impose their point of view on patients.

2. Sexual activity is one of the functions of a living organism and is regulated mainly with the help of reflexes. Many factors influence it. However, the essence of sex therapy is not teaching the "correct" sexual reactions, but the detection of obstacles that interfere with the normal functioning of the sexual sphere, and help people who want to get rid of these obstacles. But often, in order for the impaired function to be restored, the elimination of negative factors is not enough, especially in cases where the disorder has existed for many years. Such patients require special treatment.

3. The main cause of sexual dysfunction is often the fear of failure and excessive focus on one's own sexual reactions. As a result, therapy is carried out at several levels. The ban on intercourse during exercise relieves a man of the overwhelming need to achieve a good erection and conduct sexual intercourse. Then both partners, as it were, learn again to experience sensual pleasure, which is caused by touches and caresses that are not aimed at exciting sexual reactions. At the same time, clinicians help patients understand that their intimate relationship activities cannot be judged by primitive measures such as "success" or "failure." In addition, the free discussion of disturbing issues reduces anxiety, tension and fear.

4. Attempts by partners to answer the question of which of them caused the general sexual difficulties are meaningless and harmful. They only make the situation worse. A sexologist should help a man and a woman understand what exactly in their relationship contributes to calm and pleasant sensations, and what provokes tension and conflicts. In this case, each of the partners will be able to take on a share of responsibility for the positive background of intimate life.

5. It is extremely important for partners to understand that sex is just one part of their relationship. As soon as it is achieved, sexual problems will no longer attract an inadequate amount of time, thoughts, emotions.

Sex should not be ignored, but it should not completely capture partners, crowding out other interests. The cause of sexual dysfunctions most often lies in psychology, and the overall harmonization of relationships leads to improvements in intimate life.

The successful application of sex therapy has given rise to many similar methods, including even those intended for self-study and use. However, the Masters and Johnson program, like any other method of treatment, is not suitable for all patients - both for moral reasons and for medical ones. For example, sexual disorders caused by inflammatory diseases of the genitals or vascular disorders require, first of all, the treatment of the underlying ailments. Therefore, all the methods below, based on the principles of behavioral therapy and designed to get rid of specific sexual dysfunctions, are applicable and will bring a positive effect only if a person does not have serious organic pathologies.

The program of sex therapy created by Masters and Johnson has a general scheme and principles of therapy. However, it can be supplemented and expanded by other methods aimed at the treatment of various sexual disorders.