Arrangement
The complex of proteins dna and rna is called. DNA and genes

The complex of proteins dna and rna is called. DNA and genes

The topic of today's lecture is the synthesis of DNA, RNA and proteins. DNA synthesis is called replication or reduplication (doubling), RNA synthesis is called transcription (rewriting with DNA), protein synthesis carried out by a ribosome on messenger RNA is called translation, that is, we translate from the language of nucleotides into the language of amino acids.

We will try to give a brief overview of all these processes, while at the same time dwelling in more detail on the molecular details, in order to give you an idea of the depth to which this subject has been studied.

DNA replication

The DNA molecule, consisting of two helices, doubles during cell division. DNA doubling is based on the fact that when the strands are untwisted, a complementary copy can be completed for each strand, thus obtaining two strands of the DNA molecule that copies the original one.

One of the DNA parameters is also indicated here, this is the pitch of the helix, there are 10 base pairs for each complete turn, note that one step is not between the nearest ledges, but through one, since DNA has a small groove and a large one. Proteins that recognize the nucleotide sequence interact with DNA through the major groove. The pitch of the helix is 34 angstroms and the diameter of the double helix is 20 angstroms.

DNA replication is carried out by the enzyme DNA polymerase. This enzyme is only able to grow DNA at the 3' end. You remember that the DNA molecule is antiparallel, its different ends are called the 3΄ end and the 5΄ end. During the synthesis of new copies on each strand, one new strand is elongated in the direction from 5΄ to 3΄, and the other in the direction from 3΄ to the 5-terminus. However, DNA polymerase cannot extend the 5΄ end. Therefore, the synthesis of one strand of DNA, the one that grows in a direction “convenient” for the enzyme, goes on continuously (it is called the leading or leading strand), and the synthesis of the other strand is carried out in short fragments (they are called Okazaki fragments in honor of the scientist who described them). Then these fragments are sewn together, and such a thread is called a lagging thread, in general, the replication of this thread is slower. The structure that is formed during replication is called the replication fork.

If we look at the replicating DNA of a bacterium, and this can be observed in an electron microscope, we will see that it first forms a "eye", then it expands, eventually the entire circular DNA molecule is replicated. The replication process occurs with great precision, but not absolute. Bacterial DNA polymerase makes mistakes, that is, it inserts the wrong nucleotide that was in the template DNA molecule, approximately at a frequency of 10-6. In eukaryotes, enzymes work more precisely, since they are more complex, the level of errors in DNA replication in humans is estimated as 10-7 - 10 -8. The accuracy of replication can be different in different regions of the genome, there are regions with an increased frequency of mutations and there are regions that are more conservative, where mutations rarely occur. And in this, two different processes should be distinguished: the process of the appearance of a DNA mutation and the process of fixing the mutation. After all, if mutations lead to a lethal outcome, they will not appear in the next generations, and if the error is not fatal, it will be fixed in the next generations, and we will be able to observe and study its manifestation. Another feature of DNA replication is that DNA polymerase cannot start the synthesis process by itself, it needs a "seed". Typically, an RNA fragment is used as such a seed. If we are talking about the genome of a bacterium, then there is a special point called the origin (source, beginning) of replication, at this point there is a sequence that is recognized by the enzyme that synthesizes RNA. It belongs to the class of RNA polymerases, and in this case is called primase. RNA polymerases do not need seeds, and this enzyme synthesizes a short fragment of RNA - the very “seed” with which DNA synthesis begins.

Transcription

The next process is transcription. Let's dwell on it in more detail.

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA on DNA, that is, the synthesis of a complementary strand of RNA on a DNA molecule is carried out by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, have one RNA polymerase, and all bacterial enzymes are very similar to each other; in higher organisms (eukaryotes) there are several enzymes, they are called RNA polymerase I, RNA polymerase II, RNA polymerase III, they also have similarities with bacterial enzymes, but they are more complicated, they contain more proteins. Each type of eukaryotic RNA polymerase has its own special functions, that is, it transcribes a certain set of genes. The strand of DNA that serves as a template for RNA synthesis during transcription is called sense or template. The second strand of DNA is called non-coding (complementary RNA does not encode proteins, it is "meaningless").

There are three stages in the transcription process. The first stage is the initiation of transcription - the beginning of the synthesis of an RNA strand, the first bond between nucleotides is formed. Then the thread builds up, its elongation - elongation, and when the synthesis is completed, termination occurs, the release of the synthesized RNA. At the same time, RNA polymerase “peels off” DNA and is ready for a new transcription cycle. Bacterial RNA polymerase has been studied in great detail. It consists of several protein subunits: two α-subunits (these are small subunits), β- and β΄-subunits (large subunits) and ω-subunit. Together they form the so-called minimal enzyme, or core-enzyme. The σ-subunit can be attached to this core enzyme. The σ-subunit is necessary to start RNA synthesis, to initiate transcription. After the initiation has taken place, the σ-subunit is detached from the complex, and the core-enzyme conducts further work (chain elongation). When attached to DNA, the σ subunit recognizes the site at which transcription should begin. It's called a promoter. A promoter is a sequence of nucleotides that indicates the start of RNA synthesis. Without the σ-subunit, the core-enzyme cannot be recognized by the promoter. The σ subunit together with the core enzyme is called the complete enzyme, or holoenzyme.

Having contacted DNA, namely, the promoter that the σ-subunit recognized, the holoenzyme unwinds the double-stranded helix and begins RNA synthesis. The stretch of untwisted DNA is the point of transcription initiation, the first nucleotide to which a ribonucleotide must be complementarily attached. Transcription is initiated, the σ subunit leaves, and the core enzyme continues the elongation of the RNA chain. Then termination occurs, the core-enzyme is released and becomes ready for a new cycle of synthesis.

How does transcription elongate?

RNA grows at the 3' end. By attaching each nucleotide, the core-enzyme takes a step along the DNA and shifts by one nucleotide. Since everything in the world is relative, we can say that the core-enzyme is immobile, and DNA is “dragged” through it. It is clear that the result will be the same. But we will talk about movement along the DNA molecule. The size of the protein complex constituting the core enzyme is 150 Ǻ. Dimensions of RNA polymerase - 150×115×110Ǻ. That is, it is such a nanomachine. The speed of RNA polymerase is up to 50 nucleotides per second. The complex of the core enzyme with DNA and RNA is called the elongation complex. It contains a DNA-RNA hybrid. That is, this is the site where DNA is paired with RNA, and the 3'-end of the RNA is open for further growth. The size of this hybrid is 9 base pairs. The untwisted region of DNA is approximately 12 base pairs long.

RNA polymerase bound to DNA in front of the untwisted site. This region is called the front DNA duplex and is 10 base pairs long. The polymerase is also associated with a longer portion of DNA called the back DNA duplex. The size of messenger RNAs that synthesize RNA polymerases in bacteria can reach 1000 nucleotides or more. In eukaryotic cells, the size of synthesized DNA can reach 100,000 or even several million nucleotides. True, it is not known whether they exist in such sizes in cells, or in the process of synthesis they can have time to process.

The elongation complex is quite stable, because he must do a great job. That is, by itself, it will not “fall off” with DNA. It is able to move through DNA at a speed of up to 50 nucleotides per second. This process is called displacement (or, translocation). The interaction of DNA with RNA polymerase (core-enzyme) does not depend on the sequence of this DNA, in contrast to the σ-subunit. And the core-enzyme, when passing through certain termination signals, completes DNA synthesis.

Let us analyze in more detail the molecular structure of the core-enzyme. As mentioned above, the core enzyme consists of α- and β-subunits. They are connected in such a way that they form, as it were, a “mouth” or “claw”. α-subunits are located at the base of this "claw", and perform a structural function. They do not seem to interact with DNA and RNA. The ω subunit is a small protein that also has a structural function. The main part of the work falls on the share of β- and β΄-subunits. In the figure, the β΄ subunit is shown at the top and the β subunit is shown at the bottom.

Inside the “mouth”, which is called the main channel, is the active site of the enzyme. It is here that the connection of nucleotides occurs, the formation of a new bond during the synthesis of RNA. The main channel in RNA polymerase is where the DNA resides during elongation. Even in this structure, there is a so-called secondary channel on the side, through which nucleotides are supplied for RNA synthesis.

The distribution of charges on the surface of RNA polymerase provides its functions. The distribution is very logical. The nucleic acid molecule is negatively charged. Therefore, the cavity of the main channel, where negatively charged DNA should be held, is lined with positive charges. The surface of RNA polymerase is made with negatively charged amino acids to prevent DNA from sticking to it.

Almost half a century ago, in 1953, D. Watson and F. Crick discovered the principle of the structural (molecular) organization of the gene substance - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The structure of DNA gave the key to the mechanism of exact reproduction - reduplication - of the gene substance. So a new science arose - molecular biology. The so-called central dogma of molecular biology was formulated: DNA - RNA - protein. Its meaning is that the genetic information recorded in DNA is realized in the form of proteins, but not directly, but through a related polymer - ribonucleic acid (RNA), and this path from nucleic acids to proteins is irreversible. Thus, DNA is synthesized on DNA, providing its own reduplication, that is, the reproduction of the original genetic material in generations; RNA is synthesized from DNA, resulting in the rewriting, or transcription, of genetic information into the form of multiple copies of RNA; RNA molecules serve as templates for protein synthesis - genetic information is translated into the form of polypeptide chains. In special cases, RNA can be transcribed into the form of DNA ("reverse transcription"), and also copied in the form of RNA (replication), but a protein can never be a template for nucleic acids (see for more details).

So, it is DNA that determines the heredity of organisms, that is, a set of proteins and related traits that is reproduced in generations. Protein biosynthesis is the central process of living matter, and nucleic acids provide it, on the one hand, with a program that determines the entire set and specifics of synthesized proteins, and on the other, with a mechanism for accurately reproducing this program in generations. Consequently, the origin of life in its modern cellular form is reduced to the emergence of a mechanism of inherited protein biosynthesis.

PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS

The central dogma of molecular biology postulates only a way of transferring genetic information from nucleic acids to proteins and, consequently, to the properties and characteristics of a living organism. The study of the mechanisms of realization of this pathway in the decades that followed the formulation of the central dogma revealed much more diverse functions of RNA than just being a carrier of information from genes (DNA) to proteins and serving as a matrix for protein synthesis.

On fig. 1 shows a general scheme of protein biosynthesis in a cell. messenger RNA(messenger RNA, messenger RNA, mRNA), encoding proteins, which was discussed above, is only one of the three main classes of cellular RNA. Their bulk (about 80%) is another class of RNA - ribosomal RNA, which form the structural frame and functional centers of universal protein-synthesizing particles - ribosomes. It is ribosomal RNAs that are responsible - both structurally and functionally - for the formation of ultramicroscopic molecular machines called ribosomes. Ribosomes receive genetic information in the form of mRNA molecules and, being programmed by the latter, make proteins in strict accordance with this program.

However, in order to synthesize proteins, information or a program alone is not enough - you also need a material from which they can be made. The flow of material for protein synthesis goes to the ribosomes through the third class of cellular RNA - transfer RNA(transfer RNA, transfer RNA, tRNA). They covalently bind - accept - amino acids, which serve as a building material for proteins, and enter ribosomes in the form of aminoacyl-tRNA. In ribosomes, aminoacyl-tRNAs interact with codons - three-nucleotide combinations - of mRNA, as a result of which codons are decoded during translation.

RIBONUCLEIC ACIDS

So, we have a set of main cellular RNAs that determine the main process of modern living matter - protein biosynthesis. These are mRNA, ribosomal RNA and tRNA. RNA is synthesized on DNA using enzymes - RNA polymerases that carry out transcription - rewriting certain sections (linear segments) of double-stranded DNA into the form of single-stranded RNA. DNA regions encoding cellular proteins are transcribed as mRNA, while for the synthesis of numerous copies of ribosomal RNA and tRNA, there are special regions of the cellular genome from which intensive rewriting takes place without subsequent translation into proteins.

Chemical structure of RNA. Chemically, RNA is very similar to DNA. Both substances are linear polymers of nucleotides. Each monomer - nucleotide - is a phosphorylated N-glycoside, built from a five-carbon sugar residue - pentose, carrying a phosphate group on the hydroxyl group of the fifth carbon atom (ester bond) and a nitrogenous base at the first carbon atom (N-glycosidic bond). The main chemical difference between DNA and RNA is that the sugar residue of the RNA monomer is ribose, and the DNA monomer is deoxyribose, which is a derivative of ribose, in which there is no hydroxyl group at the second carbon atom (Fig. 2).

There are four types of nitrogenous bases in both DNA and RNA: two purine bases - adenine (A) and guanine (G) - and two pyrimidine bases - cytosine (C) and uracil (U) or its methylated derivative thymine (T).

Uracil is characteristic of RNA monomers, while thymine is characteristic of DNA monomers, and this is the second difference between RNA and DNA. Monomers - RNA ribonucleotides or DNA deoxyribonucleotides - form a polymer chain by forming phosphodiester bridges between sugar residues (between the fifth and third carbon atoms of the pentose). Thus, the polymer chain of a nucleic acid - DNA or RNA - can be represented as a linear sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases as side groups.

Macromolecular structure of RNA. The fundamental macrostructural difference between the two types of nucleic acids is that DNA is a single double helix, that is, a macromolecule of two complementary linked polymer strands, helically twisted around a common axis (see [ , ]), and RNA is a single-stranded polymer. At the same time, the interactions of the side groups - nitrogenous bases - with each other, as well as with phosphates and hydroxyls of the sugar-phosphate backbone, lead to the fact that a single-stranded RNA polymer folds onto itself and twists into a compact structure, similar to the folding of a protein polypeptide chain into a compact globule . In this way, unique RNA nucleotide sequences can form unique spatial structures.

The specific spatial structure of RNA was first demonstrated when deciphering the atomic structure of one of the tRNAs in 1974 [ , ] (Fig. 3). The folding of the tRNA polymer chain, which consists of 76 nucleotide monomers, leads to the formation of a very compact globular core, from which two protrusions protrude at right angles. They are short double helixes similar to DNA, but organized by the interaction of sections of the same RNA strand. One of the protrusions is an amino acid acceptor and is involved in the synthesis of the protein polypeptide chain on the ribosome, while the other is intended for complementary interaction with the coding triplet (codon) of mRNA in the same ribosome. Only such a structure is able to specifically interact with the protein-enzyme that attaches the amino acid to tRNA and with the ribosome during translation, that is, be specifically "recognized" by them.

The study of isolated ribosomal RNAs provided the following striking example of the formation of compact specific structures from even longer linear polymers of this type. The ribosome consists of two unequal parts - large and small ribosomal subparticles (subunits). Each subunit is built from one high polymer RNA and a variety of ribosomal proteins. The length of the chains of ribosomal RNA is very significant: for example, the RNA of the small subunit of the bacterial ribosome contains more than 1500 nucleotides, and the RNA of the large subunit contains about 3000 nucleotides. In mammals, including humans, these RNAs are even larger - about 1900 nucleotides and more than 5000 nucleotides in the small and large subunits, respectively.

It has been shown that isolated ribosomal RNAs, separated from their protein partners and obtained in pure form, are themselves capable of spontaneously folding into compact structures similar in size and shape to ribosomal subunits]. The shape of the large and small subparticles is different, and, accordingly, the shape of the large and small ribosomal RNAs differs (Fig. 4). Thus, linear chains of ribosomal RNA self-organize into specific spatial structures that determine the size, shape, and, apparently, the internal arrangement of ribosomal subparticles, and, consequently, of the entire ribosome.

Minor RNAs. As the components of a living cell and individual fractions of total cellular RNA were studied, it became clear that the matter was not limited to the three main types of RNA. It turned out that in nature there are many other types of RNA. These are, first of all, the so-called "small RNAs", which contain up to 300 nucleotides, often with unknown functions. As a rule, they are associated with one or more proteins and are present in the cell as ribonucleoproteins - "small RNPs".

Small RNAs are present in all parts of the cell, including the cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, and mitochondria. Most of those small RNPs whose functions are known are involved in the mechanisms of post-transcriptional processing of the main types of RNA (RNA processing) - the transformation of mRNA precursors into mature mRNAs (splicing), mRNA editing, tRNA biogenesis, maturation of ribosomal RNAs. One of the most abundant types of small RNPs (SRP) in cells plays a key role in the transport of synthesized proteins across the cell membrane. Known types of small RNAs that perform regulatory functions in broadcast. A special small RNA is part of the most important enzyme responsible for maintaining DNA replication in cell generations - telomerase. It should be said that their molecular sizes are comparable with the sizes of cellular globular proteins. Thus, it gradually becomes clear that the functioning of a living cell is determined not only by the variety of proteins synthesized in it, but also by the presence of a rich set of various RNAs, of which small RNAs largely imitate the compactness and size of proteins.

Ribozymes. All active life is built on metabolism - metabolism, and all biochemical reactions of metabolism occur at the speeds appropriate for life only thanks to highly efficient specific catalysts created by evolution. For many decades, biochemists have been convinced that biological catalysis is always and everywhere carried out by proteins called enzymes, or enzymes. And so in 1982-1983. it was shown that in nature there are types of RNA, which, like proteins, have highly specific catalytic activity [ , ]. Such RNA catalysts have been called ribozymes. The idea of the exclusivity of proteins in the catalysis of biochemical reactions came to an end.

At present, the ribosome is also considered to be a ribozyme. Indeed, all available experimental data indicate that the synthesis of the protein polypeptide chain in the ribosome is catalyzed by ribosomal RNA, and not by ribosomal proteins. A catalytic region of large ribosomal RNA has been identified, which is responsible for catalysis of the transpeptidation reaction, through which the protein polypeptide chain is extended during translation.

As for the replication of viral DNA, its mechanism is not much different from the reduplication of the genetic material - DNA - of the cell itself. In the case of viral RNA, processes are realized that are suppressed or completely absent in normal cells, where all RNA is synthesized only on DNA as a template. When infected with RNA-containing viruses, the situation can be twofold. In some cases, DNA is synthesized on viral RNA as a template ("reverse transcription"), and numerous copies of viral RNA are transcribed on this DNA. In other, most interesting cases for us, a complementary RNA chain is synthesized on viral RNA, which serves as a template for the synthesis - replication - of new copies of viral RNA. Thus, during infection with RNA-containing viruses, the fundamental ability of RNA to determine the reproduction of its own structure is realized, as is the case with DNA.

Multifunctionality of RNA. Summing up and reviewing knowledge about the functions of RNA, we can speak about the extraordinary multifunctionality of this polymer in nature. The following list of the main known functions of RNA can be given.

Genetic replicative function: structural ability to copy (replicate) linear sequences of nucleotides through complementary sequences. The function is realized in viral infections and is similar to the main function of DNA in the life of cellular organisms - the reduplication of genetic material.

Coding function: programming of protein synthesis by linear sequences of nucleotides. This is the same function as DNA. In both DNA and RNA, the same nucleotide triplets encode 20 amino acids of proteins, and the sequence of triplets in a nucleic acid chain is a program for sequential arrangement of 20 types of amino acids in a protein polypeptide chain.

Structure-forming function: formation of unique three-dimensional structures. Compactly folded small RNA molecules are fundamentally similar to the three-dimensional structures of globular proteins, while longer RNA molecules can also form larger biological particles or their nuclei.

Recognition function: highly specific spatial interactions with other macromolecules (including proteins and other RNAs) and with small ligands. This function is perhaps the main one in proteins. It is based on the ability of a polymer to fold in a unique way and form specific three-dimensional structures. The recognition function is the basis of specific catalysis.

Catalytic function: specific catalysis of chemical reactions by ribozymes. This function is similar to the enzymatic function of enzyme proteins.

In general, RNA appears to us as such an amazing polymer that, it would seem, neither the time of the evolution of the Universe, nor the intellect of the Creator should have been enough for its invention. As can be seen, RNA is capable of performing the functions of both polymers fundamentally important for life - DNA and proteins. It is not surprising that the question arose before science: could the emergence and self-sufficient existence of the RNA world precede the emergence of life in its modern DNA-protein form?

ORIGIN OF LIFE

Protein-coacervate theory of Oparin. Perhaps the first scientific, well-thought-out theory of the origin of life in an abiogenic way was proposed by the biochemist A.I. Oparin back in the 20s of the last century [,]. The theory was based on the idea that everything began with proteins, and on the possibility, under certain conditions, of spontaneous chemical synthesis of protein monomers - amino acids - and protein-like polymers (polypeptides) in an abiogenic way. The publication of the theory stimulated numerous experiments in a number of laboratories around the world, which showed the reality of such a synthesis under artificial conditions. The theory quickly became generally accepted and extraordinarily popular.

Its main postulate was that protein-like compounds spontaneously arising in the primary "broth" were combined "into coacervate drops - separate colloidal systems (sols) floating in a more dilute aqueous solution. This gave the main prerequisite for the emergence of organisms - the isolation of a certain biochemical system from the environment , its compartmentalization.Since some protein-like compounds of coacervate drops could have catalytic activity, it became possible to undergo biochemical synthesis reactions inside the drops - there was a semblance of assimilation, which means growth of the coacervate with its subsequent disintegration into parts - reproduction. coacervate was considered as a prototype of a living cell (Fig. 5).

Everything was well thought out and scientifically substantiated in theory, except for one problem, which for a long time turned a blind eye to almost all experts in the field of the origin of life. If spontaneously, by random template-free syntheses in a coacervate, single successful constructions of protein molecules arose (for example, effective catalysts that provide an advantage for this coacervate in growth and reproduction), then how could they be copied for distribution within the coacervate, and even more so for transmission to descendant coacervates? The theory has been unable to offer a solution to the problem of exact reproduction - within the coacervate and in generations - of single, randomly appearing effective protein structures.

The world of RNA as a forerunner of modern life. The accumulation of knowledge about the genetic code, nucleic acids and protein biosynthesis led to the approval of a fundamentally new idea about TOM, that everything began not with proteins at all, but with RNA [ - ]. Nucleic acids are the only type of biological polymers whose macromolecular structure, due to the principle of complementarity in the synthesis of new chains (for more details, see), provides the ability to copy their own linear sequence of monomer units, in other words, the ability to reproduce (replicate) the polymer, its microstructure. Therefore, only nucleic acids, but not proteins, can be genetic material, that is, reproducible molecules that repeat their specific microstructure in generations.

For a number of reasons, it is RNA, and not DNA, that could represent the primary genetic material.

Firstly, in both chemical synthesis and biochemical reactions, ribonucleotides precede deoxyribonucleotides; deoxyribonucleotides are products of modification of ribonucleotides (see Fig. 2).

Secondly, in the most ancient, universal processes of vital metabolism, it is ribonucleotides, and not deoxyribonucleotides, that are widely represented, including the main energy carriers such as ribonucleoside polyphosphates (ATP, etc.).

Thirdly, RNA replication can occur without any involvement of DNA, and the mechanism of DNA replication, even in the modern living world, requires the mandatory participation of an RNA primer in the initiation of DNA chain synthesis.

Fourth, Possessing all the same template and genetic functions as DNA, RNA is also capable of performing a number of functions inherent in proteins, including the catalysis of chemical reactions. Thus, there is every reason to consider DNA as a later evolutionary acquisition - as a modification of RNA, specialized to perform the function of reproducing and storing unique copies of genes in the cellular genome without direct participation in protein biosynthesis.

After catalytically active RNAs were discovered, the idea of the primacy of RNA in the origin of life received a strong impetus for development, and the concept was formulated. self-sufficient RNA world, preceding modern life [ , ]. A possible scheme for the emergence of the RNA world is shown in fig. 6.

The abiogenic synthesis of ribonucleotides and their covalent association into oligomers and polymers of the RNA type could occur under approximately the same conditions and in the same chemical setting that were postulated for the formation of amino acids and polypeptides. Recently A.B. Chetverin et al. (Protein Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences) experimentally showed that at least some polyribonucleotides (RNA) in an ordinary aqueous medium are capable of spontaneous recombination, that is, the exchange of chain segments, by trans-esterification. The exchange of short chain segments for long ones should lead to the elongation of polyribonucleotides (RNA), and such recombination itself should contribute to the structural diversity of these molecules. Catalytically active RNA molecules could also arise among them.

Even the extremely rare appearance of single RNA molecules that were able to catalyze the polymerization of ribonucleotides or the splicing of oligonucleotides on a complementary chain as on a template [ , ], meant the formation of the mechanism of RNA replication. The replication of the RNA catalysts themselves (ribozymes) should have led to the emergence of self-replicating RNA populations. By making copies of themselves, the RNA multiplied. The inevitable errors in copying (mutation) and recombination in self-replicating RNA populations created an ever-increasing diversity of this world. Thus the supposed ancient world of RNA is "a self-sufficient biological world in which RNA molecules functioned both as genetic material and as enzyme-like catalysts" .

The emergence of protein biosynthesis. Further, on the basis of the RNA world, the formation of protein biosynthesis mechanisms, the emergence of various proteins with inherited structure and properties, the compartmentalization of protein biosynthesis systems and protein sets, possibly in the form of coacervates, and the evolution of the latter into cellular structures - living cells (see Fig. 6) should have taken place. ).

The problem of the transition from the ancient RNA world to the modern protein-synthesizing world is the most difficult one even for a purely theoretical solution. The possibility of abiogenic synthesis of polypeptides and protein-like substances does not help in solving the problem, since there is no specific way in which this synthesis could be coupled with RNA and fall under genetic control. The genetically controlled synthesis of polypeptides and proteins had to develop independently of the primary abiogenic synthesis, in its own way, on the basis of the already existing world of RNA. Several hypotheses for the origin of the modern mechanism of protein biosynthesis in the RNA world have been proposed in the literature, but, perhaps, none of them can be considered as thoroughly thought out and flawless in terms of physicochemical capabilities. I will present my version of the process of evolution and specialization of RNA, leading to the emergence of the apparatus of protein biosynthesis (Fig. 7), but it does not pretend to be complete.

The proposed hypothetical scheme contains two essential points that seem to be fundamental.

Firstly, it is postulated that abiogenically synthesized oligoribonucleotides actively recombine through the mechanism of spontaneous non-enzymatic transesterification, leading to the formation of elongated RNA chains and giving rise to their diversity. It is in this way that both catalytically active types of RNA (ribozymes) and other types of RNA with specialized functions could appear in the population of oligonucleotides and polynucleotides (see Fig. 7). Moreover, non-enzymatic recombination of oligonucleotides complementary binding to a polynucleotide template could provide crosslinking (splicing) of fragments complementary to this template into a single chain. It is in this way, and not by the catalyzed polymerization of mononucleotides, that primary copying (propagation) of RNA could be carried out. Of course, if ribozymes appeared that possessed polymerase activity, then the efficiency (accuracy, speed, and productivity) of copying was on a complementary basis. matrix should have increased significantly.

Second The fundamental point in my version is that the primary apparatus for protein biosynthesis arose on the basis of several types of specialized RNA before the advent of the apparatus for enzymatic (polymerase) replication of genetic material - RNA and DNA. This primary apparatus included catalytically active proribosomal RNA with peptidyl transferase activity; a set of pro-tRNAs that specifically bind amino acids or short peptides; another proribosomal RNA capable of interacting simultaneously with catalytic proribosomal RNA, pro-mRNA, and pro-tRNA (see Fig. 7). Such a system could already synthesize polypeptide chains due to the transpeptidation reaction catalyzed by it. Among other catalytically active proteins - primary enzymes (enzymes) - also appeared proteins that catalyze the polymerization of nucleotides - replicases, or NK polymerases.

However, it is possible that the hypothesis of the ancient world of RNA as the predecessor of the modern living world will not be able to get sufficient justification to overcome the main difficulty - a scientifically plausible description of the mechanism of transition from RNA and its replication to protein biosynthesis. There is an attractive and well-thought-out alternative hypothesis of A.D. Altshtein (Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences), which postulates that the replication of genetic material and its translation - protein synthesis - arose and evolved simultaneously and conjugated, starting with the interaction of abiogenically synthesized oligonucleotides and aminoacyl-nucleotilates - mixed anhydrides of amino acids and nucleotides. But that's the next story... "And Scheherazade caught the morning, and she stopped the permitted speech".)

Literature

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Spirin Alexander Sergeevich - Academician, Director of the Institute of Protein Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The process of realization of hereditary information in biosynthesis is carried out with the participation three types ribonucleic acids (RNA): informational (matrix) - mRNA (mRNA), ribosomal - rRNA and transport tRNA. All ribonucleic acids are synthesized in the corresponding regions of the DNA molecule. They are much smaller than DNA and are a single chain of nucleotides. Nucleotides contain a phosphoric acid residue (phosphate), a pentose sugar (ribose) and one of the four nitrogenous bases - adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil. The nitrogenous base, uracil, is complementary to adenine.

The process of biosynthesis includes a number of steps - transcription, splicing and translation.

The first step is called transcription. Transcription occurs in the cell nucleus: mRNA is synthesized at the site of a certain gene of the DNA molecule. A complex of enzymes is involved in the synthesis, the main of which is RNA polymerase.

The synthesis of mRNA begins with the detection by RNA polymerase of a special site in the DNA molecule, which indicates the site of the start of transcription - the promoter. After attaching to the promoter, RNA polymerase unwinds the adjacent turn of the DNA helix. Two strands of DNA diverge at this point, and mRNA synthesis takes place on one of them. The assembly of ribonucleotides into a chain occurs in compliance with their complementarity with DNA nucleotides, and also antiparallel to the template DNA chain. Due to the fact that RNA polymerase is able to assemble a polynucleotide only from the 5' end to the 3' end, only one of the two DNA strands can serve as a template for transcription, namely the one that faces the enzyme with its 3' end. Such a chain is called codogenic.

The antiparallelism of the connection of two polynucleotide chains in a DNA molecule allows RNA polymerase to correctly select a template for mRNA synthesis.

Moving along the codogenic DNA chain, RNA polymerase carries out an accurate gradual rewriting of information until it encounters a specific nucleotide sequence - a transcription terminator. In this region, RNA polymerase is separated from both the DNA template and the newly synthesized mRNA. A fragment of a DNA molecule, including a promoter, a transcribed sequence, and a terminator, forms a transcription unit, a transcripton.

Further studies have shown that the so-called pro-mRNA is synthesized during transcription, a precursor of the mature mRNA involved in translation. Pro-mRNA is much larger and contains fragments that do not code for the synthesis of the corresponding polypeptide chain. In DNA, along with regions encoding rRNA, tRNA, and polypeptides, there are fragments that do not contain genetic information. They are called introns, in contrast to the coding fragments, which are called exons. Introns are found in many regions of DNA molecules. For example, one gene, a DNA region encoding chicken ovalbumin, contains 7 introns, while the rat serum albumin gene contains 13 introns. The length of the intron is different - from 200 to 1000 pairs of DNA nucleotides. Introns are read (transcribed) at the same time as exons, so pore-mRNA is much longer than mature mRNA. The maturation, or processing, of mRNA involves the modification of the primary transcript and the removal of non-coding intron regions from it, followed by the connection of coding sequences - exons. In the course of processing, introns are “cut out” from pro-mRNA by special enzymes, and exon fragments are “spliced” together in a strict order. In the process of splicing, a mature mRNA is formed, which contains the information that is necessary for the synthesis of the corresponding polypeptide, that is, the informative part of the structural gene.

The meaning and functions of introns have not yet been fully elucidated, but it has been established that if only portions of exons are read in DNA, mature mRNA is not formed. The splicing process has been studied using ovalbumin as an example. It contains one exon and 7 introns. First, pro-mRNA containing 7700 nucleotides is synthesized on DNA. Then the pro-mRNA number of nucleotides decreases to 6800, then to 5600, 4850, 3800, 3400, etc. up to 1372 nucleotides corresponding to the exon. The mRNA containing 1372 nucleotides leaves the nucleus into the cytoplasm, enters the ribosome and synthesizes the corresponding polypeptide.

The next stage of biosynthesis - translation - occurs in the cytoplasm on ribosomes with the participation of tRNA.

Transfer RNAs are synthesized in the nucleus, but function in a free state in the cytoplasm of the cell. One tRNA molecule contains 75-95 nucleotides and has a rather complex structure resembling a clover leaf. It has four parts that are of particular importance. The acceptor "stalk" is formed by the complementary connection of the two terminal parts of the tRNA. It has 7 base pairs. The 3'-end of this stem is somewhat longer and forms a single-stranded region, which ends with a CCA sequence with a free OH group - the acceptor end. A transportable amino acid is attached to this end. The remaining three branches are complementary paired nucleotide sequences that end in unpaired sections that form loops. The middle of these branches - anticodon - consists of 5 pairs and contains an anticodon in the center of its loop. The anticodon is 3 nucleotides complementary to the mRNA codon, which encodes the amino acid transported by this tRNA to the site of peptide synthesis.

Between the acceptor and anticodon branches are two side branches. In their loops, they contain modified bases - dihydrouridine (D-loop) and a triplet T ᴪC, where ᴪ is pseudouridine (T ᴪC-loop). Between the anticodon and T ᴪC branches there is an additional loop, including from 3-5 to 13-21 nucleotides.

The addition of an amino acid to tRNA is preceded by its activation by the enzyme aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. This enzyme is specific for each amino acid. The activated amino acid attaches to the corresponding tRNA and is delivered by it to the ribosome.

The central place in translation belongs to ribosomes - ribonucleoprotein organelles of the cytoplasm, which are present in many in it. The size of ribosomes in prokaryotes is on average 30 * 30 * 20 nm, in eukaryotes - 40 * 40 * 20 nm. Usually their sizes are determined in units of sedimentation (S) - the rate of sedimentation during centrifugation in the appropriate medium. In E. coli bacteria, the ribosome has a size of 70S and consists of 2 subparticles, one of which has a constant of 30S, the second 50S, and contains 64% ribosomal RNA and 36% protein.

The mRNA molecule exits the nucleus into the cytoplasm and attaches to a small subunit of the ribosome. Translation begins with the so-called start codon (synthesis initiator) - AUG -. When tRNA delivers an activated amino acid to the ribosome, its anticodon is hydrogen bonded to the nucleotides of the complementary mRNA codon. The acceptor end of the tRNA with the corresponding amino acid is attached to the surface of the large subunit of the ribosome. After the first amino acid, another tRNA delivers the next amino acid, and thus a polypeptide chain is synthesized on the ribosome. An mRNA molecule usually works on several (5-20) ribosomes at once, connected into polysomes. The beginning of the synthesis of a polypeptide chain is called initiation, its growth is called elogation. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is determined by the sequence of codons in mRNA. The synthesis of the polypeptide chain stops when one of the codons - terminators - UAA -, - UAG - or - UGA - appears on the mRNA. The end of the synthesis of a given polypeptide chain is called termination.

It has been established that in animal cells the polypeptide chain lengthens by 7 amino acids in one second, and mRNA advances on the ribosome by 21 nucleotides. In bacteria, this process proceeds 2-3 times faster.

Consequently, the synthesis of the primary structure of the protein molecule - the polypeptide chain - occurs on the ribosome in accordance with the order of nucleotide alternation in the matrix ribonucleic acid - mRNA.

Protein biosynthesis (translation) is the most important stage in the implementation of the genetic program of cells, during which the information encoded in the primary structure of nucleic acids is translated into the amino acid sequence of synthesized proteins. In other words, translation is the translation of four letter (according to the number of nucleotides) "language" of nucleic acids into a twenty-letter (according to the number of proteinogenic amino acids) "language" of proteins. Translation is carried out in accordance with the rules of the genetic code.

Importance M. Nirenberg and J. Mattei, and then S. Ochoa and G. Korans, which they began in 1961, had to uncover the genetic code. in the USA. They developed a method and experimentally established the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA codons that control the location of a given amino acid in the polypeptide chain. In a cell-free environment containing all amino acids, ribosomes, tRNA, ATP and enzymes, M. Nirenberg and J. Mattei introduced an artificially synthesized mRNA-type biopolymer, which is a chain of identical nucleotides - UUU - UUU - UUU - UUU - etc. the biopolymer encoded the synthesis of a polypeptide chain containing only one amino acid, phenylalanine; such a chain is called polyphenylalanine. If the mRNA consisted of codons containing nucleotides with a nitrogenous base cytosine - CCC - CCC - CCC - CCC -, then a polypeptide chain containing the amino acid proline - polyproline was synthesized. Artificial mRNA biopolymers containing codons - AGU - AGU - AGU - AGU - synthesized a polypeptide chain from the amino acid serine - polyserine, etc.

Reverse transcription.

Reverse transcription is the process of forming double-stranded DNA on a single-stranded RNA template. This process is called reverse transcription, since the transfer of genetic information occurs in the “reverse” direction relative to transcription.

Reverse transcriptase (revertase or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template in a process called reverse transcription. Reverse transcription is necessary, in particular, to carry out the life cycle of retroviruses, for example, human immunodeficiency viruses and T-cell human lymphoma types 1 and 2. After the viral RNA enters the cell, the reverse transcriptase contained in the viral particles synthesizes DNA complementary to it, and then completes the second chain on this DNA chain, as on a matrix. Retroviruses are RNA-containing viruses, in whose life cycle includes the stage of DNA formation by reverse transcriptase and its introduction into the host cell genome in the form of a provirus.

There is no preferred site for the introduction of the provirus into the genome. This makes it possible to classify it as a mobile genetic element. The retrovirus contains two identical RNA molecules. There is a cap on the 5" end and a poly A tail on the 3" end. The reverse transcriptase enzyme carries the virus with it.

The retrovirus genome contains 4 genes: nucleoid gag protein, pol reverse transcriptase, env capsid (shell) protein, oncogene. str5 = str3-short terminal repeat; U5, U3-unique sequences, PB (primer binding site) - binding site priming. tRNA sits on the RV (due to complementarity) and serves as a seed for DNA synthesis. A small piece of DNA is synthesized.

Reverse transcriptase, also possessing the activity of RNase H, removes RNA in the hybrid with DNA, and due to the identity of str3 and str5, this single-stranded DNA region interacts with the 3'-end of the second RNA molecule, which serves as a template for continuing the synthesis of the DNA chain.

Then the RNA template is destroyed and a complementary DNA chain is built along the resulting DNA chain.

The resulting DNA molecule is longer than RNA. It contains LTR (U3 str 3(5) U5). In the form of a provirus, it is located in the genome of the host cell. During mitosis and meiosis, it is transmitted to daughter cells and descendants.

Some viruses (such as HIV, which causes AIDS) have the ability to transcribe RNA into DNA. HIV has an RNA genome that integrates into DNA. As a result, the DNA of the virus can be combined with the genome of the host cell. The main enzyme responsible for the synthesis of DNA from RNA is called reversetase. One of the functions of reversetase is to create complementary DNA (cDNA) from the viral genome. The associated enzyme ribonuclease H cleaves RNA, and reversetase synthesizes cDNA from the DNA double helix. cDNA is integrated into the host cell genome by integrase. The result is the synthesis of viral proteins by the host cell, which form new viruses.

Central dogma of molecular biology - is the flow of information from DNA through RNA on the protein : information is transferred from nucleic acids to proteins, but not vice versa. The rule was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958. The transfer of genetic information from DNA to RNA and from RNA to protein is universal for all cellular organisms without exception, and underlies the biosynthesis of macromolecules. Genome replication corresponds to the DNA → DNA informational transition. In nature, there are also transitions RNA → RNA and RNA → DNA (for example, in some viruses).

DNA, RNA and proteins are linear polymers, that is, each monomer they contain combines with a maximum of two other monomers. The sequence of monomers encodes information, the transmission rules of which are described by the central dogma.

General - found in most living organisms; Special - occurring as an exception, in viruses and in mobile elements of the genome or in the conditions of a biological experiment; Unknown - not found.

DNA replication (DNA → DNA)Transcription (DNA → RNA)Translation (RNA → protein) Mature mRNA is read by ribosomes during translation. Complexes of initiation and elongation factors deliver aminoacylated transfer RNAs to the mRNA-ribosome complex.

Reverse transcription (RNA → DNA) transfer of information from RNA to DNA, a process that is the reverse of normal transcription, carried out by the enzyme reverse transcriptase. Occurs in retroviruses such as HIV. RNA replication (RNA → RNA) copying an RNA chain to its complementary RNA chain using the enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Viruses containing single-stranded (for example, foot-and-mouth disease virus) or double-stranded RNA replicate in a similar way. Direct translation of a protein on a DNA template (DNA → protein) Live translation has been demonstrated in E. coli cell extracts that contained ribosomes but no mRNA. Such extracts synthesized proteins from DNA introduced into the system, and the antibiotic neomycin enhanced this effect.

11. Types of matrix synthesis as a central process in the transmission, storage and implementation of hereditary material.

matrix the nature of the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins provides high accuracy of information reproduction .

genetic information genotype defines phenotypic signs of a cell genotype transforms into phenotype .

This direction of information flow includes three typesmatrix syntheses:

1. DNA synthesis - replication

2. RNA synthesis - transcription

3. protein synthesis - broadcast

1) DNA replication (DNA → DNA) exact duplication (replication) of DNA. Replication is carried out by a complex of proteins that unwind the chromatin, then the double helix. After that, DNA polymerase and its associated proteins build an identical copy on each of the two strands. Playbacksource genetic material in generations.2) Transcription (DNA → RNA) the biological process by which the information contained in a piece of DNA is copied onto the synthesized mRNA molecule. Transcription is carried out by transcription factors and RNA polymerase. 3) Translation (RNA → protein) Genetic information is translated into polypeptide chains. Complexes of initiation factors and elongation factors deliver aminoacylated transfer RNAs to the mRNA-ribosome complex. 4) In special cases, RNA can be rewritten in the form of DNA (reverse transcription) and also copied in the form of RNA (replication), but a protein can never be a template for nucleic acids.

Repair- this is matrix synthesis that corrects errors in the structure of DNA , option limited replication. Restores initial structure of DNA. The matrix is a plot intact strands of DNA.

Structure of nucleotides. Spatial isomers (2'-endo-, 3'-endo-, etc., anti, syn)

NUCLEOTIDE- a complex chemical group found in the natural state. Nucleotides are the building blocks for NUCLEIC acids (DNA and RNA). Nucleotides are built from three components: a pyrimidine or purine base, pentose, and phosphoric acid. Nucleotides are linked together in a chain by a phosphodiester bond. It is formed due to the esterification of the OH group C-3` of the pentose of one nucleotide and the OH group of the phosphate residue of another nucleotide. As a result, one of the ends of the polynucleotide chain ends with a free phosphate (P-terminus or 5'-terminus). On the other end, there is a non-esterified OH group at C-3'pentose (3'-end). In living cells, free nucleotides are also found, presented in the form of various coenzymes, which include ATP.

All 5 heterocyclic bases included in the constituent nucleic acids have a flat conformation, but this is energetically unfavorable. Therefore, 2 conformations are realized in polynucleotides C3`-endo and C2`-endo. C1, 0 and C4 are located in the same plane, C2 and C3 are in endo conformations when they are brought out above this plane, i.e. in the direction of communication С4-С5.

The most important feature in determining the conformation of a nucleotide unit is the mutual arrangement of the carbohydrate and heterocyclic parts, which is determined by the angle of rotation around the N-glycosidic bond. There are 2 regions of allowed conformations, syn- and anti-.

All living things depend on three basic molecules for essentially all of their biological functions. These molecules are DNA, RNA and protein. Two strands of DNA rotate in opposite directions and are located next to each other (anti-parallel). This is a sequence of four nitrogenous bases directed along the backbone that encodes biological information. According to the genetic code, RNA strands are converted to determine the sequence of amino acids in proteins. These strands of RNA are originally made using strands of DNA as a template, a process called transcription.

Without DNA, RNA and proteins, no biological life would exist on Earth. DNA is an intelligent molecule that codes for the complete set of genetic instructions (the genome) needed to assemble, maintain and reproduce each creature. RNA plays multiple vital roles in encoding, decoding, regulating and expressing genetics. The main duty of RNA is to make proteins according to the instruction sets encoded in the cell's DNA.

DNA is made up of a sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. RNA is the same.

In DNA, the nitrogenous base is made up of nucleic acids: cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and thymine (T). Metaphysically, each of these nucleic acids is associated with the elemental substances of the planet: Air, Water, Fire and Earth. When we pollute these four elements on Earth, we pollute the corresponding nucleic acid in our DNA.

However, in RNA, the nitrogenous base consists of nucleic acids: cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and uracil (U). In addition, each of the RNA nucleic acids is associated with the elemental substances of the planet: Air, Water, Fire, and Earth. In both DNA and RNA, Mitochondrial DNA corresponds to the fifth basic element Cosmic Ether, outgoing t only from Mother. This is an example of allotropy, which is a feature of a small amount chemical elements be in two or more distinct forms, known as allotropes of those elements. Allotropes are various structural modifications of an element. Our DNA is an allotrope of the four basic planetary elements.

The main biological function of the nitrogenous bases in DNA is to link nucleic acids. Adenine always combines with thymine, and guanine always combines with cytosine. They are known as paired bases. Uracil is present only in RNA, replacing thymine and combining with adenine.

Both RNA and DNA use base pairing (male + female) as an additional language that can be converted in either direction between DNA and RNA by the action of the appropriate enzymes. This male-female language or base pairing structure provides a back-up copy of all the genetic information encoded within double stranded DNA.

Reverse twin base

All DNA and RNA function on the gender principle of base pairing, creating a hydrogen bond. Paired bases must join in sequence, allowing DNA and RNA to interact (according to the original design of our 12 Strands of DNA, the Diamond Sun Body) and also allowing RNA to produce functioning proteins that build the links that synthesize and repair the DNA double helix. Human DNA has been damaged by base-pair mutation and alteration of sequence editing pairs or inserts by engineered organisms such as a virus. Intervention in the paired bases concerns the technology of the gender split of the reverse network of Nephilim (NRG), influencing all male and female language and their relationships. Copies of DNA are created by joining nucleic acid subunits with a male-female base pair on each strand of the original DNA molecule. Such a connection always occurs in certain combinations. Alteration of the basic DNA compound, as well as many levels of genetic modification and genetic control, contribute to the suppression of DNA synthesis. This is a deliberate suppression of the activation of the 12 DNA strands of the original blueprint, the Silicon Matrix, assembled and built by proteins. This genetic suppression has been carried out aggressively since the cataclysm of Atlantis. It is directly related to the suppression of the union of hierogamy, which is achieved by the correct connection of the DNA bases, with which it is possible to create and assemble proteins to restore the fire letters of DNA.

RNA editing with aspartame

One example of genetic modification and experimentation with the population is the use of aspartame*. Aspartame is chemically synthesized from aspartate, which impairs the function of the uracil-thymine bond in DNA, and also reduces the functions of RNA protein synthesis and communication between RNA and DNA. RNA editing through the addition or removal of uracil and thymine recoded the cell's mitochondria, in which mitochondrial damage contributed to neurological disease. Thymine is a powerful protector of DNA integrity. In addition, lowering uracil produces the substrate aspartate, carbon dioxide and ammonia.

Interference with the nitrogen cycle

As a result of the Industrial Revolution, the deployment of the military complex through NEA contacts, the overall nitrogen cycle has been significantly altered over the past century. While nitrogen is essential for all known life on Earth, there have been fossil fuel wars deliberately forced by the NAA, polluting the Earth and damaging DNA. Nitrogen is a component of all amino acids that make up proteins and is present in the bases that make up the nucleic acids of RNA and DNA. However, by waging wars over fossil fuels, forcing the use of engines internal combustion, create chemical fertilizers and pollute environment vehicles and industries, people have contributed to the serious toxicity of nitrogen in biological forms. Nitric oxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia - all this creates a greenhouse gas that poisons the Earth, drinking water and oceans. This contamination causes DNA damage and mutation.

Elemental Change of the Pain Body

Thus, many of us have experienced elemental changes in our blood, body parts (especially on the surface of the skin that responds to changes in blood) and profound changes in our cells and tissues. The revitalization of matter as a result of magnetic changes also penetrates the levels of our emotional-elemental body, significantly affecting the cellular reactions and memory stored in the Instinctive Body (Pain Body).

This new cycle forces each of us to pay attention to our instinctive body, our emotional-elemental pain body, and what is happening to it. The relationship of solar and lunar forces and their combined effect on the polarities of the planetary body forces are adjusted to this effect on the magnetic field.

Unfortunately, failure to understand the higher principles of Natural Law results in great chaos and suffering for those who persist in indulging in destruction, division and violence, regardless of the methods used.

However, the mass exodus of lunar forces, lunar chain beings, Fallen Angels from our planet and solar system currently ongoing. As the solar system is quarantined, those who are Ascended (or pure of heart) will experience a profound realignment of their sacred energy centers from lunar to solar influences. This bifurcation of solar and lunar forces continues to change not only in the emotional-elemental body, but also in the sacral center and all reproductive organs. It brings adjustments or insights to many of the issues related to sexual suffering that have been programmed based on the hidden histories associated with the lunar chain entities. Mother's magnetic command sets and mitochondrions restore the Solar Femininity for their earthly children as well.

DNA synthesis

Understanding that our emotional-elemental body moves from carbon-based atoms to higher-based elements through high frequency activation and planetary magnetic changes, we can connect the dots in the spiritual development of our own bodies associated with personal alchemical processes. In the restoration of the sophianic body, the alchemical transformation of our evolution of consciousness merges with the scientific understanding of DNA synthesis. DNA synthesis is as important as DNA activation, which plays an important and direct role in spiritual ascension. The Mother brings back the mitochondrial DNA record through the reversal of magnetic currents, restoring the blueprint of our blood, brain and nervous system to higher functioning with our true original DNA.

*BUT spartam is a genetically engineered chemical distributed and marketed as a dietary supplement

Translation: Oreanda Web