Invention of Greek fire. What's happened
To burn enemy ships, a mixture of ignited resin, sulfur, tow, incense and sawdust of a resinous tree is used.
Aeneas Tactician ( « 0b the art of the commander, 350 BC)
Greek fire is "kerosene" (petroleum), sulfur, tar and tar.
Arabic manuscript (Saladan, 1193)
To get Greek fire, you need to take an equal amount of molten sulfur, tar, one fourth of opopanax (vegetable juice) and pigeon droppings; all this, well dried, is dissolved in turpentine or sulfuric acid, then placed in a strong closed glass vessel and heated for fifteen days in an oven. After that, the contents of the vessel are distilled like wine alcohol and stored in finished form ...
Vincentius (XIII century alchemist.)
Prepare Greek fire in this way: take pure sulfur, earthen oil (oil), boil it all, put tow and set it on fire.
The composition of Greek fire and gunpowder should be almost identical.
Ludovic Lallai (1847, Paris)
J. Partington (1961, Cambridge).
Everyone who is at least a little familiar with history knows about Greek fire. But not a single conscientious historian or chemist will take the liberty of declaring that he knows the composition of this powerful military weapon of antiquity. History has left us the most detailed descriptions battles and naval battles where Greek fire was used. The name of its inventor is known, the ways of using it on land and at sea, even the ancient methods of protection against it. Everything except its composition and method of preparation.
Thousands of researchers, from medieval alchemists to the greatest scientists of our day, have tried to penetrate the mystery of Greek fire.
The terrible weapon of ByzantiumMost historical sources attribute the invention of Greek fire to the mechanic Kallinikos of Heliopolis. The historian Theophanes in the "Chronograph" reports that in 673 AD, during the siege of Constantinople by the Arabs, Kallinikos gave the Byzantine emperor a recipe for an incendiary composition, later called Greek fire.
The composition was placed in a closed vessel, which was thrown by a throwing machine at the enemy. Some manuscripts say that, pouring out of a broken vessel, the mixture ignited in combination with air. It was impossible to pour the Greek fire: the water only intensified its burning.
Later, the Byzantines developed other, more advanced ways of using Greek fire. It was thrown out of pipes under pressure using bellows, siphons and pumps. There is reason to believe that the energy of burning gases was used for this. Then the eruption of the incendiary liquid was accompanied by a strong roar, as evidenced by contemporaries.
Once upon a time, the mere mention of Greek fire inspired horror and confusion in the souls of people. It had a particularly destructive effect on ships during naval battles. In history, one can find many examples when, with the help of Greek fire, it was possible to destroy a numerically superior enemy fleet. Information about the use of Greek fire can be found in the "Tactics" of the Byzantine emperor Leo VI (866-912); it says: “Following the custom, one should always have a pipe lined with copper on the bow of the ship for throwing this fire at the enemy. Of the two rowers at the bow, one must be a pipe operator.
On many Greek ships, allegorical figures of dragons were installed in the bow, through the mouths of which pipes were discharged, spewing deadly fire. On land, to throw jets of Greek fire, the Byzantines used installations on wheels, which were shaped like wild animals. Pushed by warriors, "fighting dragons", spewing Greek fire from their mouths, terrified the enemies of Byzantium.
“Answer that the fire was opened by an Angel ...”The Byzantine emperors immediately appreciated the strategic importance of the new weapon. Lez the Philosopher ordered the preparation of Greek fire only in secret laboratories, and Constantine VII Porphyrogenic declared the recipe for its manufacture a state secret. To preserve it, he used the entire arsenal of intimidation and secrecy at his disposal. As an edification to his son, the future heir to the throne, he, in "Discourses on public administration"Wrote:" You should most of all take care of the Greek fire ... and if anyone dares to ask him from you, as we often asked from ourselves, then reject these requests and answer that the fire was opened by an Angel to Constantine, the first emperor of the Christians. The great emperor, as a warning to his heirs, ordered a curse to be carved in the temple on the throne for anyone who dares to convey this discovery to strangers ... "
This warning could not fail to play its part in preserving the mystery of Greek fire for many centuries ...
Fire ceases to be GreekIn vain were the attempts of the Arabs and Slavs, who experienced the full force of the action of Greek fire, to learn from the Byzantines the secret of this terrible weapon. Neither the subsequent rapprochement nor the kinship of some of the great Russian princes with the Byzantine emperors helped that.
For more than five centuries, Byzantium kept the secret of Greek fire, and, if not for treason, it would have managed to maintain a monopoly for an even longer period.
But it so happened that in 1210 the Byzantine emperor Alexei III was deprived of the throne and fled to the Sultan of Iconium. The Sultan showed him special confidence by appointing him the commander of the army. And there is nothing surprising in the fact that eight years later, a participant in the crusade and siege of Damietta (in 1218), Oliver L "Ecolator, claimed that the Arabs used Greek fire against the crusaders.
It is possible that the secret of Greek fire became the property of not only the Arabs, but also the Slavs.
When the Kama Bulgars captured the ancient Russian city of Ustyug, the Grand Duke of Vladimir George sent his brother Svyatoslav with a strong militia to curb the invaders. In 1219, the Russians attacked the city of the Kama Bulgars Oshel, “... and the pawns with fire and axes went ahead, and behind them the archers ... approached the hail, setting it on fire from everywhere, and there was a great storm and a great smoke to pull on them .. . "- this is how the chronicle tells about this event.
It is known that in 1301 the Novgorodians took possession of the Landskrona, using "fire and slings".
According to some evidence, Tamerlane (1333-1405) was also armed with Greek fire.
After the secret of Greek fire became the property of many peoples, it lost its significance, and the chronicles, which tell about the sea and land battles of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, hardly mention it.
The last record about him was made by the historian Francis, describing the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mohammed II. During the siege, Greek fire was used by both the Byzantines and the Turks.
The use of Greek fire continued for seven centuries, until the penetration of gunpowder into Europe and the appearance of firearms.
All attempts are in vain...What could be Greek fire? Many researchers of antiquity, trying to solve the riddle, made up all kinds of chemical mixtures, which included almost all the incendiary means known at that time.
The first attempt to lift the veil over the mystery was made by the Byzantine historian Princess Anna Komnenos (1083-1148). Her recipe featured only three ingredients: resin, sulfur and tree sap...
In France, a certain Dupre devoted his whole life to unraveling this mystery. Finally, having completed his search, he sold his discovery to the French king Louis XV (1710-1774). During the trials, the king was horrified and, as legend has it, ordered that all papers containing Dupre's discovery be destroyed. Soon the inventor himself died under unclear circumstances ...
In the middle of the 19th century in France, the historian and archaeologist L. Lalanne, the orientalist Joseph Renault and Professor Favet, trying to find the key to the age-old mystery, conducted research on Arabic, Greek and Chinese sources. In their opinion, the composition of the Greek fire closely approached the Chinese incendiary substances, known long before our era, containing large amounts of saltpeter.
The German specialist A. Shtetbacher in the book "Gunpowder and Explosives" (1937) believes that the Greek fire consisted of sulfur, salt, tar, asphalt and burnt lime. The composition, in contact with water, heated up, while the heat of slaking the lime evaporated part of the combustible substances, which, in combination with air, gave an explosive mixture.
Relatively recently, in 1960, a major study by J. Partington "The History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder" was published in Cambridge. The English scientist came to the conclusion that the Greek fire was a jelly-like liquid consisting of light distillation fractions of oil, tar and sulfur. Partington believes that Greek fire could not be a substance resembling gunpowder, and therefore it could not contain saltpeter, as French researchers believed.
One can agree that Greek fire cannot be identified with black powder, at the same time one cannot help but object to the fact that saltpeter could not enter Greek fire. She could play the role of a thickener or be an oxidizing agent that increases the power of fire. Probably, Greek fire was composed of the crude product of a light fraction of oil distillation, various resins, vegetable oils and possibly saltpeter or quicklime. After all, it is not in vain that Byzantine, Arabic and Latin sources testify that the only way to extinguish a Greek fire is ... with vinegar.
However, this and all other assumptions are only hypotheses that have not yet found any confirmation.
In ancient Greece, fire was always revered. Many legends are associated with him and his prey, which are known to this day. The god of fire in Greek mythology, Hephaestus, who was the husband of the beautiful Aphrodite, was revered by people in almost the same way as Zeus. Everyone remembers the story of Prometheus, who stole fire and gave it to people. The Greek god of fire was angry with arbitrariness and punished the titan. But the latter completed his mission, people learned how to warm themselves by the fire and cook food.
The god of fire in Greek mythology was described as a powerful lame blacksmith who forged iron in his cave for days on end. One of the ancient legends says that it was in his forge that the famous Greek fire was made. Then Hephaestus gave it to the priests who worshiped him. Perhaps there is no more phenomenal invention in the world than Greek fire. Many centuries ago, he inspired animal horror on enemies, but still haunts people.
Prototypes of Greek fire
According to historians, something similar to Greek fire was seen in the 5th century BC during the Peloponnesian War. During the battle between the Athenian and Boeotian armies at Delia, one of the sides used a strange type of weapon: a sloping log, “spitting” with an incendiary mixture. Presumably the "cocktail" consisted of three ingredients: oil, sulfur and crude oil. The Boeotians "thrown" him out of the pipe, trying to smoke out the Athenians from the besieged city.
A little later, the ancient Greeks created a flamethrower that fired pure flames. Charcoal was most likely used as fuel, which was pushed out by the force of air. He was pumped with the help of furs. Of course, these inventions were far from real Greek fire, but who knows if they were not the basis for the future “thunderstorm of the Middle Ages”?
History of creation
To the question of who invented Greek fire, almost all chroniclers answer unequivocally: the mechanic Kallinikos is a native of the Syrian Heliopolis, who defected to the Byzantines when the Arabs occupied his hometown. This refugee rendered an excellent service to his new homeland and forever went down in world history. And everything happened like this: in 673, the Arabs went with a sword to the Christians. They managed to reach Cilicia, which at that time belonged to Byzantium. There they wintered and moved on in the spring.
Emperor Constantine the Fourth found out about the approach of the enemy army and began to prepare for defense. This is where the mechanic Kallinikos came in handy. The refugee, who had already suffered from the Arabs, was very reluctant to meet them again. And he decided to help Byzantium by giving Constantine his invention - a siphon breathing liquid fire.
The sovereign accepted the offering with gratitude. Under the leadership of the Syrian, a large number of such siphons were created, ships were equipped with them. When the Arab fleet approached, they doused it with red-hot slurry, instantly burning the tree. The remnants of the enemy army left the battlefield in a panic ... And the Byzantines rejoiced. Still would! Now they felt powerful and invincible. The invention of Greek fire marked a golden era in the history of the empire.
Top secret
The production of "fire-breathing siphons" was put on a grand scale. Understanding the value of weapons, the rulers of Byzantium kept the recipe for making Greek fire a big secret. One of the emperors even stated that the fire was a gift from an Angel, who made a condition: no other people should receive it.
It became a state secret, and for disclosure, anyone was threatened with certain death, whether it was a serf or the emperor's son. However, ordinary Byzantines could not find out how Greek fire was prepared. After all, they made it in secret laboratories, under seven locks. And the heirs to the throne from an early age were taught the importance of silence.
So, for example, Constantine the Seventh in his will wrote to his son: “ the main task yours is to take care of the Greek fire. For it was created by an angel especially for Byzantium. And if someone asks you for a recipe, refer to the angelic prohibition. And on the throne in the temple, by order of this emperor, they cut out the text of the curse, which was supposed to fall on the one who would give out the secret. Severe measures worked, and the Byzantines managed to keep this secret for several centuries. And there were so many who wanted to know the recipe!
Loud fiery victories
The very first use of Greek fire made a great noise in the Muslim world. When the Arabs, more than forty years after the defeat, moved to Byzantium again and were burned again, legends began to circulate about the mysterious weapon. Restless conquerors tried to capture Constantinople six decades later - in 882. But this campaign ended badly for them. Shortly before the third attempt of the Arabs - in 872 - the Byzantines fought off the Cretan army and burned 20 enemy ships.
And in 941, the Russian prince Igor, who decided to go to the rich Constantinople by war, got it in the teeth. And in 1043, his "feat" was repeated by another ruler of Kievan Rus - Vladimir. It was then that they started talking about Greek fire throughout the civilized world. And messengers rushed to Byzantium from the Slavs, Muslims, Europeans ... But neither cunning, nor bribery, nor family ties, no one managed to achieve what they wanted.
One of the legends
State secrets were kept like the apple of an eye. The authorities even spread one legend. It told about a high-ranking Byzantine nobleman who was offered a huge amount of gold by the Arabs for issuing a recipe. He agreed and had to hand over to the enemies the drawings of the device for throwing and the very composition of the Greek fire. Before he went to meet the Arabs, he decided to go to the church and pray. But in front of the entrance to the temple, the heavens opened up, the divine flame fell on the nobleman. So God punished the traitor, for the secret was given by the Lord to the first Christian sovereign, and divulging it was considered a huge sin.
Description and use of miracle fire
The Byzantine device was an oblong metal vessel, cast (presumably) from bronze. A flammable mixture was poured inside the pipe, and the vessel was firmly sealed. During the battle, a special throwing machine threw it at the enemy. Fire burst out of the vessel with a terrible roar and noise, burning everything in its path. Judging by the records of the chroniclers, it was impossible to extinguish the flame - the water only strengthened it. And, once on the deck of an enemy ship, he instantly turned the tree into ashes. How exactly the "eruption" occurred, scientists have not yet figured out. Research is still ongoing.
In the early stages of its existence, Greek fire was used only during naval battles. And although the early flamethrowers were not perfect (they threw vessels over short distances - a maximum of 25 meters; they could not be used in a strong headwind, etc.), even the mere mention of this weapon terrified the soldiers. Which, by the way, had more of a psychological explanation. People were afraid of Greek fire, because they did not understand its nature, they considered it to be something mystical, transcendental ... But it was worth moving a distance of more than 25 meters, and no gods would help the fire overtake the victim.
A little about terms
It should be noted that the Byzantines did not call fire Greek. They did not consider themselves Greeks, but were called Romans. They called him simply fire. And other peoples didn’t come up with any kind of epithets. Historians managed to find references to sea fire, liquid fire, living fire, and Roman fire. Later, when the weapons broke out of Byzantium, the Muslims called the fire naphtha. However, this is how they called all incendiary mixtures used during battles.
Perfection of Greek fire
Time passed, wars did not end, the Byzantines improved their secret weapon. So, for example, they began to equip the bow of the ships with siphons in the form of a dragon's head. It turned out that the destructive flame escaped, as it were, from the mouth of a mythical animal. This increased the panic among superstitious enemies.
Around the beginning of the second millennium, Greek fire, the photo of which can be seen in this article, began to be used not only at sea, but also on land, inventing manual siphons. With their help, for example, equipment near the walls of besieged cities, wooden gates and even manpower were set on fire. A lightweight, portable device made it possible to throw a deadly cocktail directly into the face of the enemy during close combat.
Fire outside of Byzantium
No matter how hard the Byzantines tried to keep the secret of making Greek fire a secret, the moment came when "the bird flew out of the cage." After five centuries of the strictest secrecy, a traitor was found. It happened in 1210, when the Byzantine emperor Alexei III was deprived of the throne. He was forced to flee his native country and found shelter in the Konya Sultanate. Only eight years after his flight, the Arabs used Greek fire in the battle with the crusaders. And soon the Slavs also mastered the technology, using it during the attack of the Bulgar Oshel in 1219 and during the siege of the Swedish fortress of Landskrona in 1301. Some historians claim that Tamerlane was also armed with Greek fire.
The flame went out
The most recent mention of the use of the brainchild of Kallinikos dates back to 1453, when Mehmed the Second Conqueror tried to take Constantinople. Fiery "roosters" then flew towards each other. At both sides. Both the Byzantines and the Turks used it. Greek fire slowly began to fade with the advent of gunpowder and firearms in the arsenal of Europeans. Yes, and there was no longer in him the former strength that was nourished by mystery. As soon as the Byzantine secret became public property, interest in the invention disappeared, and the recipe for preparing the mixture was lost.
Attempts to resurrect the fire
Of course, modern world does not need Greek fire, having a thousand times more efficient technology. But the lost secret of the Byzantines has been worrying the minds of scientists for many centuries in a row. How to make Greek fire? The search for an answer to this question continues to this day. How did Greek fire come about? What was the recipe for it? There are many versions. If we turn to the records of bygone years, then the following options pop up:
Recipe Search
Many alchemists and scientists have tried to find the secret components. For example, the French chemist Dupre in 1758 loudly announced that he had succeeded in recreating Greek fire. Of course, they did not immediately believe him. And they wanted to prove it. In the vicinity of Le Havre, a wooden sloop was placed at a fairly large distance from the coast. Dupre was able to burn it with his invention. The French king Louis XV was impressed by the spectacle and bought the chemist's work and all the drawings for a fabulous sum. He also took an oath from him that he would forget about his invention. Then the king destroyed all the papers.
Modern Assumptions
Modern researchers have two main versions. The first of them is based on the information of the Byzantine alchemist Mark the Greek, who claimed that only with the help of saltpeter it was possible to create Greek fire. The composition, in addition to this ingredient, contained resin, oil and sulfur. It was saltpeter that was responsible for the "outlet of fire." She heated up, a violent reaction began in her, which tore the balloon. Supporters of this version tend to believe that the container was set on fire before the flight - right on the ship. After that, the balloon "fired", and Greek fire destroyed the enemies.
Recipe number two: oil, lime and sulfur with resin as a thickener. The cocktail was placed in a cylinder, which was set on fire before being launched. Or the container was torn apart upon contact with water (due to lime, which has a violent reaction with water).
Unfortunately, none of the options are officially approved. Common sense suggests that the second is more truthful, because saltpeter appeared in Europe later than Greek fire. In addition, it is difficult to imagine that the Byzantines, heating the cylinder, burned a fire on a wooden deck ... But nothing can be said. The fire born under the cover of mystery continues to remain dark horse for everyone so far.
History keeps many cases of hiding military secrets. An example of this is the famous "Greek fire", the likely forerunner of the modern flamethrower. The Greeks guarded the secret of their weapons for five centuries, until it was lost forever.
So who and when for the first time in history used a flamethrower? What is this strange weapon - "Greek fire" that still haunts historians? Some researchers accept the fact of reports about him as an indisputable truth, while others, despite the evidence of sources, treat them with distrust.
The first use of incendiary weapons occurred during the Battle of Delia, which took place in 424 BC. In this battle, the Theban commander Pagonda defeated the main Athenian army led by Hippocrates, who fell on the battlefield. Then the "incendiary weapon" was a hollow log, and the combustible liquid was a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil.
During the Peloponnesian War between the Athenian Maritime Union and the Peloponnesian Union, led by Sparta, the Spartans burned sulfur and tar under the walls of Plataea, wanting to force the besieged city to surrender. This event is described by Thucydides, who himself was a participant in the war, but was expelled for his unsuccessful command of the squadron of the Athenian fleet.
However, some kind of flamethrower was invented much later. But he threw not a combustible composition, but a pure flame interspersed with sparks and coals. Fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier, then air was blown with the help of bellows, causing a flame escaping from the muzzle with a deafening and terrible roar. Of course, such weapons were not long-range.
Only with the advent of the mysterious "Greek fire" could we talk about the creation of a formidable and merciless weapon.
The closest harbingers of "Greek fire" are the "braziers" used on Roman ships, with the help of which the Romans could break through the formation of ships of the enemy fleet. These "braziers" were ordinary buckets, into which flammable liquid was poured immediately before the battle and set on fire. The “brazier” was hung at the end of a long hook and carried five to seven meters ahead of the ship’s course, which made it possible to empty a bucket of flammable liquid onto the deck of an enemy ship before it could ram a Roman ship.
There were also siphons, invented around 300 BC. a certain Greek from Alexandria, a hand weapon, which was a pipe filled with oil. The oil was set on fire, and it was possible to water the enemy ship with it. It is generally accepted that later the siphons were made of bronze (according to other sources - of copper), but how exactly they threw a combustible composition is unknown ...
And yet the true "Greek fire" - if there was one at all! appeared only in the Middle Ages. The origin of this weapon is still not exactly known, but it is assumed that it was invented by a certain Syrian architect and engineer Kallinikos, a refugee from Maalbek. Byzantine sources even indicate the exact date of the invention of "Greek fire": 673 AD. (according to other sources, it was the year 626, when the Romans used fire against the Persians and Avars, who were besieging Constantinople with their combined forces). "Liquid fire" erupted from the siphons, and the combustible mixture burned even on the surface of the water. The fire was extinguished only with sand. This sight caused horror and surprise of the enemy. One of the eyewitnesses wrote that the combustible mixture was applied to a metal spear launched by a giant sling. It flew with the speed of lightning and with a thunderous roar and was like a dragon with a pig's head. When the projectile reached its target, an explosion occurred and a cloud of acrid black smoke rose, after which a flame arose, spreading in all directions; if they tried to extinguish the flame with water, it flared up with renewed vigor.
At first, "Greek fire" - or "grijois" - was used only by the Romans (Byzantines), and only in naval battles. In naval battles, the "Greek fire" was the ultimate weapon, according to the accounts, since it was the crowded fleets of wooden ships that provided the perfect target for the incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arabic sources unanimously claim that the effect of "Greek fire" was truly stunning. Historian Nikita Choniates writes of "closed pots where fire sleeps, which suddenly breaks out with lightning and sets fire to everything it reaches."
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as oil, various oils, combustible resins, sulfur, asphalt and a certain “secret component” are named. Presumably, it was a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites on contact with water, and some viscous carriers like oil or asphalt.
For the first time, pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromons - ships of the fleet of the Byzantine Empire, and then became the main weapon of all classes of Byzantine ships.
In the late 660s of our era, the Arab fleet repeatedly approached Constantinople. However, the besieged, led by the energetic Emperor Constantine IV, beat off all attacks, and the Arab fleet was destroyed with the help of "Greek fire". The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: “In the year 673 the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV found out about the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ships carrying siphons ... The Arabs were shocked ... They fled in great fear.
In 717, the Arabs, led by the caliph's brother, the Syrian governor Maslama, approached Constantinople and on August 15 made another attempt to capture Constantinople. On September 1, the Arab fleet, numbering more than 1800 ships, occupied the entire space in front of the city. The Byzantines blocked the Golden Horn with a chain on wooden floats, after which the fleet, led by Emperor Leo III, inflicted a heavy defeat on the enemy. His victory was largely facilitated by the "Greek fire". “The emperor prepared fire-bearing siphons and placed them on board one- and two-deck ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was utterly defeated.
The same thing happened to the Arabs in 739, 780 and 789. In 764, the Bulgarians fell victim to the fire ...
There is evidence that the Romans used "Greek fire" against the Russians.
In 941, with the help of their secret weapons, they defeated the fleet of Prince Igor, who was marching on Tsargrad (Constantinople). The Romans, warned by the Bulgarians, sent a fleet to meet the formidable Rus' under the leadership of Caruas, Feofan and Vard Fok. In the ensuing naval battle, the Russian fleet was destroyed. Not least thanks to the "Greek living fire". It was impossible to put out the ships, and the Russian soldiers, fleeing from the deadly fire, jumped into the sea in "armor" and went to the bottom like a stone. The oncoming storm completed the rout of the Russian fleet.
Nearly a hundred years had passed when the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir, in 1043 unexpectedly approached the walls of Constantinople with a fleet. Russian ships lined up in one line in the Golden Horn Bay, where a battle took place a few days later. According to Carlo Botta, the Russians were defeated "from the onset of autumn storms, Greek fire and the experience of the Byzantines in maritime affairs."
However, in another sea battle the same Vladimir Yaroslavich with the fleet of the Romans, when the prince returned home, the "Greek fire" did not show itself in any way. The Russians returned unhindered to Kyiv. It is also not entirely clear why fire was not used during the famous successful campaign against Byzantium by Prince Oleg of Kyiv in 907 ... And why did Byzantium not use such a powerful tool against its other opponents?
According to a number of Russian and Western European historians, the Mongol-Tatars also used "Greek fire". However, in the primary sources, almost nowhere is it said about the effectiveness of its use!
The "live fire" did not show itself at all during Batu's campaigns against Rus'. On the take largest cities- princely capitals - it took from three days to a week, and such a small town as Kozelsk, which could be burned without much trouble with the same "live fire", staunchly held out against the entire Batu Horde for seven weeks. The victorious invasion of Batu into Western Europe also did without the use of "live fire". Famous Janibek more than a year unsuccessfully stormed Kafa (modern Feodosia) ...
The capture and ruin of Moscow by Tokhtamysh is described in sufficient detail, but the author of the "Tale" does not mention any "miracle weapon" from the invaders. The most famous Asian commander Timur (Tamerlane) also did very well without the wonderful "Greek fire".
At the time of the Crusades, "Greek fire" was already widely known both in the West and in the East, and was used not only in naval, but also in land battles.
In general, combustible materials were used in the West, as well as in the East, and a widespread method of fighting the enemy's throwing machines was to set them on fire with the help of burning tow. Even on the Bayeux carpet, one can see primitive incendiaries, which are torches at the end of long lances, designed to set fire to siege towers and weapons, almost always made of wood. During the siege of Jerusalem, according to the chroniclers, a real stream of combustible materials fell on the besiegers: “The townspeople threw fire into the towers in a dense mass, there were many burning arrows, firebrands, pots of sulfur, oil and resin, and much more that supports the fire.”
But the "Greek fire" was more terrible than tar or firebrands. There is information about this wonderful "weapon mass destruction in medieval Spanish chronicles. They are written down from the words of the participants in the campaign of Louis IX in the holy land.
There were many oil sources in Arabia and the countries of the Middle East, so the Arabs could easily use oil, because its reserves were simply inexhaustible. During the Franco-Byzantine attack on Egypt in 1168, the Muslims kept twenty thousand pots of oil at the gates of Cairo and then set off ten thousand burning stones to set fire to the city and keep the Franks out.
The famous Saladin was in the same way compelled to set fire to his Nubian camp in order to suppress the revolt of his black guard, and indeed, when the rebels saw their camp on fire, where their property, wives and children were located, they fled in panic.
One witness described the effect produced during the siege of Damietta in November 1219 by “tablecloths of Greek fire”: “Greek fire, flowing like a river from the river tower and from the city, sowed terror; but with the help of vinegar, sand and other materials they extinguished it, coming to the aid of those who became its victims.
Over time, the crusaders learned to defend themselves from "live fire"; they covered the siege weapons with the skins of freshly skinned animals and began to extinguish the fire not with water, but with vinegar, sand or talc, which the Arabs had long used to protect themselves from this fire.
Along with evidence of terrible weapons in the history of "Greek fire" there are many white spots and simply inexplicable situations.
Here is the first paradox: as the chronicler Robert de Clary pointed out in his work “The Conquest of Constantinople”, created at the beginning of the 13th century, the crusaders themselves in 1204, so they already knew his secret? - tried to use "Greek fire" during the siege of Constantinople. However, the wooden towers of the walls of Constantinople were protected by skins moistened with water, so the fire did not help the knights. And why didn't the Romans, who knew its secrets and defended the city, use "live fire"? It remains a mystery. One way or another, but the crusaders, having blocked Constantinople from the sea and land, took it with a decisive assault, losing only one knight.
The same thing happens during the agony of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. Even in the last battles for the capital, the use of the “wonder weapon” did not come ...
After all, if such an effective weapon existed that instilled fear and horror in opponents, why didn’t it later play a significant role in battles? Because his secret was lost?
It is worth thinking about the following question: is it possible to maintain a monopoly on any type of weapon or military equipment after its effect has been clearly demonstrated on the battlefield? As the experience of wars shows, no. It turns out that this formidable weapon was used only in those campaigns when, even without it, there were already real prerequisites for achieving victory - the small number of enemy troops, the indecisive nature of his actions, bad weather conditions, and the like. And when meeting with a strong enemy, the army, which possessed a "miracle weapon", suddenly found itself on the verge of death and for some reason did not use a terrible weapon. The version about the loss of the recipe for "live fire" is very doubtful. The Byzantine Empire, like any other state of the Middle Ages, did not know peaceful respite...
So did "Greek fire" exist at all?
The question remains open. In fact, flamethrowers in combat operations began to be used only at the beginning of the 20th century, or rather, during the First World War, and by all the belligerents.
Thank God, there were big problems with reliable weapons based on non-mechanical principles of defeat in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. By "non-mechanical principles of defeat" I mean such achievements of the deadly art as the impact on the human body of anything other than an animal's tusk, a horse's hoof, a piece of wood or iron. That is, what? Magic, poisonous gases, bacteria and viruses, a jet of burning liquid, a laser beam, a blast wave or X-rays.
However unreliable weapons based on non-mechanical principles were available, used and, alas, sometimes not without success.
Chemical weapon. So, the Spartans (famous entertainers ...) during the siege of Plataea in 429 BC. they burned sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide, which was damaging to the respiratory tract. With a fair wind, such a cloud, of course, could cause a real sensation in the ranks of the enemy.
In favorable situations, for example, when the enemy took refuge in a cave or headed for a besieged fortress with a freshly dug underground hole, the Greeks and Romans burned wet straw interspersed with other materials of increased stink. With the help of furs or due to the natural flow of air currents, a suffocating cloud fell into a cave / tunnel, and then some people could be very unlucky.
However, the increased "contextuality" of such weapons, the absence of gas masks and synthetic chemistry for many centuries predetermined the extremely low frequency of the use of chemical weapons.
Bacteriological weapon. There are different opinions about bacteriological weapons. It seems that some nomads bombarded the besieged cities with the help of throwing machines with pots of infected rodents. In the film "Flesh, Blood and Tears", which I do not like, a certain very smart warrior of the early 16th century. used for similar purposes the corpse of an infected dog, which drank the blood of soldiers suffering from bubonic plague.
The bonzes of ancient historiography - Polybius, Livy and Plutarch - in their description of the siege by the Romans of Syracuse allied to the Carthaginians (211 BC) do not report on the use of thermal weapons, however, the Greek writer Lucian (II century AD) cites curious information that scientists, philosophers and artists of the Renaissance later joyfully seized on.
Archimedes built a hexagonal mirror made up of small square mirrors. Each of these mirrors was hinged and driven by a chain drive. Thanks to this, the angles of rotation of the mirrors could be chosen in such a way that the reflected sun's rays were focused at a point located at the distance of the arrow's flight from the mirror. Archimedes used his system of mirrors to set fire to the ships of the Romans. This plot delighted the titans of the Renaissance and continues to stir the minds of modern historians of material culture. And the artist Giulio Parigi (1566-1633) painted a charming fantasy picture that you can see.
What confuses me personally in this story?
First, some general physical considerations, which I will not give in order not to bore the reader with boring details.
Secondly, the conspiratorial silence of the classical historian of the Punic War, namely Polybius. Mirrors are mentioned only by the late Lucian (2nd century AD), and he was a famous storyteller.
Thirdly, the lack of replicas. If Archimedes really succeeded in such a technical adventure, then why did the handy Romans, having captured Syracuse in defiance of all the engineering miracles of the defenders, not copied the combat mirrors? After all, quinqueremes they borrowed from the Carthaginians, and scorpions- the Greeks.
But anything is possible in our best of worlds. At worst, magic is not ruled out.
Flamethrower weapon. Having dealt with exotic weapons, let's consider flamethrowing weapons, that is, quite traditional for the wars of the 20th century.
The first reliable case of ejection of an incendiary composition from a pipe was recorded at the Battle of Delia (424 BC). The pipe was a hollow log and the combustible liquid was a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil.
A little later, a flamethrower was invented, which, however, did not throw a combustible composition, but a pure flame interspersed with sparks and coals. As it turns out, fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier. Then, with the help of bellows, air began to be forced; with a deafening and terrible roar, flames burst from the muzzle. I think five meters.
However, in some situations, this modest range does not seem so ridiculous. For example, in a naval battle, when ships converge to board the board, or during a sortie besieged against the enemy's wooden siege works.
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Rice. 2. Hand flamethrower and flamethrower siphon |
However, the most interesting and mysterious, truly flamethrower and truly inhuman weapon was the "Greek fire".
Antiquity does not know this weapon, although "braziers", used in the battle of Panorma, can be recognized as harbingers of Greek death wisdom.
The real "Greek fire" appears in the Early Middle Ages. It is believed that it was invented by a certain Kallinikos, a Syrian scientist and engineer, a refugee from Maalbek. Byzantine sources even indicate the exact date of the invention of "Greek fire": 673 AD. "Liquid fire" erupted from siphons. The combustible mixture burned even on the surface of the water.
The "Greek Fire" was the ultimate weapon in naval battles, as crowded fleets of wooden ships are perfect targets for firebombs. Both Greek and Arabic sources unanimously declare that the effect of "Greek fire" was simply stunning.
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as oil, various oils, combustible resins, sulfur, asphalt are called, and - of course! - some "secret component". The most adequate option seems to be a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites when in contact with water, and some viscous media like oil or asphalt. Well, magic, of course.
For the first time pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromon, and then became the main weapon of all classes of Byzantine ships. With the help of "Greek fire" two large Arab invasion fleets were destroyed.
The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: "In the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV learned of the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ship-carriers of siphons ... The Arabs were shocked... They fled in great fear."
The second attempt was made by the Arabs in 718.
"The emperor prepared fire-bearing siphons and placed them on board one- and two-deck ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was utterly defeated."
There is no doubt that over time, the Arabs realized one very simple thing: the psychological impact of Greek fire is much stronger than its real damaging ability. It is enough to maintain a distance of about 40-50 m from the Byzantine ships. Which was done. However, "do not approach" in the absence of effective means defeat means "do not fight." And if on land, in Syria and Asia Minor, the Byzantines suffered from the Arabs one defeat after another, then Constantinople and Greece, to which the Saracens had to swim and swim, and therefore to expose themselves and expose themselves to the blows of the Byzantine fire-bearing ships, the Christians managed to hold for long centuries.
It should also be noted that the Byzantines successfully used "Greek fire" not only against the Arabs, but also against the Rus. In particular, in 941, with the help of this secret weapon, a victory was won over the fleet of Prince Igor, who approached Constantinople directly.
Publication:
Copyright © 1999
Greek fire
"Greek fire" is one of the most attractive and exciting mysteries of the Middle Ages. This mysterious weapon, which possessed amazing efficiency, was in service with Byzantium and for several centuries remained the monopoly of the mighty Mediterranean empire. As a number of sources allow us to judge, it was the “Greek fire” that guaranteed the strategic advantage of the Byzantine fleet over the naval armadas of all the dangerous rivals of this Orthodox superpower of the Middle Ages.
The first reliable case of ejection of an incendiary composition from a pipe was recorded at the Battle of Delia (424 BC) between the Athenians and the Boeotians. More precisely, not in the battle itself, but during the assault by the Boeotians of the city of Delium, in which the Athenians took refuge.
The pipe used by the Boeotians was a hollow log, and the combustible liquid was presumably a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil. The mixture was thrown out of the chimney with enough force to force the Delian garrison to flee from the fire and thus ensure the success of the Boeotian warriors in storming the fortress wall.
In the Hellenistic era, a flamethrower was invented, which, however, did not throw a combustible composition, but a pure flame interspersed with sparks and coals. As is clear from the captions to the drawing, fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier. Then, with the help of bellows, air began to be pumped, after which, with a deafening and terrible roar, flames burst from the muzzle. Most likely, the range of this device was small - 5-10 meters.
However, in some situations, this modest range does not seem so ridiculous. For example, in a naval battle, when ships converge to board the board, or during a sortie besieged against the enemy's wooden siege works.
The real "Greek fire" appears in the early Middle Ages. It was invented by Kallinikos, a Syrian scientist and engineer, a refugee from Heliopolis (modern Baalbek in Lebanon). Byzantine sources indicate the exact date of the invention of "Greek fire": 673 AD.
"Liquid fire" erupted from the siphons. The combustible mixture burned even on the surface of the water.
"Greek fire" was a powerful argument in naval battles, since it is precisely the crowded squadrons of wooden ships that make an excellent target for an incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arabic sources unanimously declare that the effect of "Greek fire" was simply stunning.
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as oil, various oils, combustible resins, sulfur, asphalt are called, and - of course! - a "secret ingredient". The most adequate option seems to be a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites when in contact with water, and any viscous carriers like oil or asphalt.
For the first time pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromons - the main class of Byzantine warships. With the help of "Greek fire" two large Arab invasion fleets were destroyed.
The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: “In the year 673 the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV found out about the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ships carrying siphons ... The Arabs were shocked ... They fled in great fear.
The second attempt was made by the Arabs in 717-718.
“The emperor prepared fire-bearing siphons and placed them on board one- and two-deck ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was utterly defeated.
Later, in the 10th century, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenet described this event as follows: “Someone Kallinikos, who ran to the Romans from Heliopolis, prepared liquid fire thrown out of the siphons, which burned the Saracen fleet at Cyzicus, the Romans won.”
Another Byzantine emperor, Leo VI the Philosopher, gives the following description of Greek fire: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and people fighting on them. This is the fire prepared for the siphons, from which it rushes with a thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which it is directed.
Siphons, as is commonly believed, were made of bronze, but how exactly they threw a combustible composition is unknown. But it is easy to guess that the range of the "Greek fire" was more than moderate - a maximum of 25 m.
There is no doubt that over time, the Arabs realized that the psychological impact of Greek fire is much stronger than its real damaging ability. It is enough to maintain a distance of about 40-50 m from the Byzantine ships. Which was done. However, "do not approach" in the absence of effective means of destruction means "do not fight." And if on land, in Syria and Asia Minor, the Byzantines suffered from the Arabs one defeat after another, then thanks to the fire-bearing ships, the Christians managed to hold Constantinople and Greece for many centuries.
There are a number of other precedents for the successful use of "liquid fire" by the Byzantines to defend their sea frontiers.
In 872, they burned 20 Cretan ships (more precisely, the ships were Arab, but operated from captured Crete). In 882, the fire-bearing Byzantine ships (helandii) again defeated the Arab fleet.
It should also be noted that the Byzantines successfully used "Greek fire" not only against the Arabs, but also against the Rus. In particular, in 941, with the help of this secret weapon, a victory was won over the fleet of Prince Igor, who approached Constantinople directly.
A detailed story about this naval battle was left by the historian Liutprand of Cremona:
“Roman [the Byzantine emperor] ordered shipbuilders to come to him, and said to them: “Now go and immediately equip those helands that are left [at home]. But place a device for throwing fire not only at the bow, but also at the stern and on both sides.
So, when helandia were equipped according to his order, he put in them the most experienced men and ordered them to go towards King Igor. They set sail; seeing them at sea, King Igor ordered his army to take them alive and not kill them. But the good and merciful Lord, desiring not only to protect those who honor Him, worship Him, pray to Him, but also to honor them with victory, tamed the winds, thereby calming the sea; for otherwise it would have been difficult for the Greeks to throw fire.
So, having taken a position in the middle of the Russian [troop], they [began] throwing fire in all directions. The Russians, seeing this, immediately began to rush from the ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in the fire. Some, weighed down with chain mail and helmets, immediately went to the bottom of the sea, and they were no longer seen, while others, having swum, continued to burn even in the water; no one was saved that day if he did not manage to run to the shore. After all, the ships of the Russians, due to their small size, also swim in shallow water, which the Greek Helandia cannot because of their deep draft.
Historian Georgiy Amartol adds that the defeat of Igor after the attack of the fire-bearing helands was completed by a flotilla of other Byzantine warships: dromons and triremes.
Based on this valuable recognition, one can make an assumption about the organizational structure of the Byzantine fleet of the 10th century. Specialized ships - helandia - carried siphons for throwing "Greek fire", since, presumably, they were considered less valuable (than dromons and triremes), but more structurally adapted for this function.
While the cruisers and battleships of the Byzantine fleet were dromons and triremes - which fought the enemy in a manner classic for the entire era of pre-powder sailing and rowing fleets. That is, by ramming, shelling with various projectiles from the throwing machines on board and, if necessary, boarding, for which they had sufficiently strong detachments of fighters.
Later, the Byzantines used “Greek fire” against the Rus at least once more, during the Danube campaign of Prince Svyatoslav, son of Igor (“Sfendoslav, son of Ingor” by the historian Leo Deacon). During the struggle for the Bulgarian fortress Dorostol on the Danube, the Byzantines blocked the actions of Svyatoslav's fleet with the help of fire-bearing ships.
Here is how Leo the Deacon describes this episode: “In the meantime, fire-bearing triremes and food ships of the Romans appeared floating along the Istra. At the sight of them, the Romans were incredibly happy, and the Scythians were terrified, because they were afraid that liquid fire would be turned against them. After all, they had already heard from the old people from their people that with this very “Median fire” the Romans turned the huge fleet of Ingor, the father of Sfendoslav, into ashes on the Euxine Sea. Therefore, they quickly gathered their canoes and brought them to the city wall in the place where the flowing Istres goes around one of the sides of Doristol. But the fiery ships lay in wait for the Scythians from all sides, so that they could not slip away on the boats to their land.
The Byzantines used the Greek "fire" in the defense of fortresses. So, on one of the miniatures of the “Chronicle” by Georgy Amartol from the Tver list (beginning of the 14th century), stored in the Moscow State Library named after V.I. Lenin, one can see the image of a warrior with a fire-throwing siphon in his hands.
Further, it is known that in 1106 "Greek fire" was used against the Normans during the last siege of Durazzo.
"Greek fire" was also used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). Which, however, did not save Constantinople - it was taken by the crusaders and subjected to monstrous devastation.
The secret of making Greek fire was kept in strict secrecy, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost.
The last mention of the use of Greek fire refers to the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II the Conqueror: Greek fire was then used by both the Byzantines and the Turks.
After the start of the mass use of gunpowder-based firearms, Greek fire lost its military significance, its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.