Are there Brahmins in modern India? Indian castes: what is it? In Hindu philosophy, there are several essences of God
Brahmins in Ancient India
The Brahmin caste is the highest and, as a result, the most influential caste. Initially, it was made up of priests, who in ancient India were called
- "Purohita";
- "Home priests" of the king.
Then these names were replaced by a single one - Brahmins. People believed that it was their prayers or rituals, as well as sacrifices performed by priests, that had sacred power. Therefore, Hindus treated this category of population with special respect and reverence. Sometimes the priests could be so powerful that their authority was much higher than that of the rulers.
The benefit of the entire tribe required that their sacred chants, ways to perform rites and rituals, teachings be preserved and passed down from generation to generation. The surest way to accomplish this was for the most respected and influential priests of the tribe to gradually pass on their experience and knowledge to their sons as well as students. By the way, the priests always had students who studied the Laws and the Vedas. These students admired the oratorical art of their teachers and strove to be like them. But the peculiarity of the Brahmins was that each had his own style of presentation, and some could also write something from themselves. Thus, entire Brahmin tribes and clans arose. Composing schools, corporations and hierarchies, the Brahmins preserved prayers and hymns, sacred knowledge. Preservation was mainly due to oral tradition, songs.
Initially, it was assumed that each Aryan tribe had its own Brahmin clan. For example, the Koshalas had the clan of Vasistha, and the Anges had the clan of Gautama. But gradually the tribes, relations between which were peaceful, decided to unite into one state. Their priestly families also entered into interaction, into partnership with each other. They borrowed songs and prayers, hymns from each other. There was a complete assimilation of clans and tribes, they exchanged experience and knowledge, and these processes were quite natural. The creeds and sacred songs of the various Brahmanical schools became not individual, but the common property of the entire partnership. The partnership included several different genera at once, which were united by one idea.
All the songs and teachings, which originally existed exclusively orally, were then transferred to material media, they were recorded, and the brahmins collected scrolls to pass on to the next generation of students. Thus, the Indian Vedas appeared. They became "knowledge", a collection of all sacred songs and invocations of deities, called the Rigveda. Then came two more collections of sacred songs, sacrificial formulas and prayers, rules of rituals and sacrifices. They were given the names "Samaveda" and "Yajurveda".
Characteristics of the Brahmin caste
Brahmins are the highest caste. It has some unique features. For example, if a person has a member of the Brahmin caste in his neighborhood, then he can give him countless gifts, but in return such a giver will not receive even a small trinket. This is established in the rules: brahmins never give gifts, they can take something, certain benefits, but at the same time they give absolutely nothing in return.
There is an opinion among foreigners that all Indian programmers belong to the Brahmin caste. Such a joke got out of the opinion that Indian programmers are very rich and, moreover, educated people. This makes them related to the Brahmins. Although in reality in modern world Brahmins remain the same priests and priests. Their main area of activity is teaching, transferring knowledge about religious features, as well as serving in the temple, keeping order in it.
Remark 1
According to the rules, a person from another caste cannot become a brahmin: a brahmin can only be born exclusively in a family of the same brahmins.
Brahmins adhere to strict endogamy, marrying only within their own social group. They are not allowed to do manual work and are generally prohibited from engaging in the following activities:
- dressing of animal skins;
- Walking with a plow.
Other dirty work is also forbidden to brahmins: it is believed that this is the lot of the Shudra caste or untouchables. It is strictly forbidden for a Brahman to communicate with them, because if contact occurs, it will be considered a sin. According to the rules, the brahmin will be obliged to visit the temple during the next month and pray to the gods for blessings and indulgence for such an offense. Brahmins also face some other prohibitions. Firstly, they cannot eat the food that was prepared by representatives of other castes, since by doing so they can defile their body and lose the sacred spirit that is inherent in them by birthright.
Remark 2
The murder of a high priest is considered one of the gravest sins for an orthodox Hindu. Worse than killing a Brahmin is only killing a cow, because everyone knows that in India they are sacred animals.
Almost three-quarters of modern brahmins continue to be engaged in one way or another in the performance of their spiritual duties. The traditional attire that distinguishes the Brahmins from all other members of other castes is a wide-brimmed dress, which is called "dhoti". Usually it's clothing. white color, which symbolizes the purity of the soul and body of a Brahmin. The forehead of a Brahmin is decorated with a tilak. This is a special ritual sign, which means belonging to the Brahmin varna. At the same time, the tilak informs about the religious trend to which the brahmin belongs as a priest. The largest religious movements today are Vaishnavism (Vaishnavism) and Shaivism. They are not only the most influential, but also the most common. There is no rivalry between them, all brahmins strive to exchange experience and knowledge, but whether they will continue to use this knowledge in their teachings depends only on themselves.
Recently I was preparing an essay on anthropology on the topic "The Mentality of India". The creation process was very exciting, because the country itself impresses with its traditions and characteristics. For those who are interested, please read.
I was especially struck by: the fate of women in India, the phrase that "Husband is an earthly God", the very difficult life of the untouchables (the last estate in India), and the happy existence of cows and bulls.
Contents of the first part:
1. General information
2. Castes
1
. General information about India
INDIA, Republic of India (in Hindi - Bharat), a state in South Asia.
Capital - Delhi
Area - 3,287,590 km2.
Ethnic composition. 72% Indo-Aryans, 25% Dravidians, 3% Mongoloids.
The official name of the country , India, comes from the ancient Persian word Hindu, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit Sindhu (Skt. सिन्धु), the historical name of the Indus River. The ancient Greeks called the Indians the Indoi (ancient Greek Ἰνδοί) - "the people of the Indus". The Constitution of India also recognizes a second name, Bharat (Hindi भारत), which comes from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Indian king whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name, Hindustan, has been used since the time of the Mughal Empire, but has no official status.
Territory of India in the north it extends in the latitudinal direction for 2930 km, in the meridional direction - for 3220 km. India is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its neighbors are Pakistan in the northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. In addition, India has maritime borders with the Maldives in the southwest, with Sri Lanka in the south and with Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of the state of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.
India ranks seventh in the world in terms of area, second largest population (after China) , currently lives in it 1.2 billion people. India has had one of the highest population densities in the world for thousands of years.
Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent and had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.
More than 900 million Indians (80.5% of the population) practice Hinduism. Other religions with a significant following are Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism (0.4%). Religions such as Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Bahai and others are also represented in India. Among the aboriginal population, which is 8.1%, animism is common.
Almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to big cities has led to a sharp increase in the urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity, India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The gender composition of the population is characterized by the excess of the number of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5%, and the female population is 48.5%. There are 929 women for every thousand men, a ratio that has been observed since the beginning of this century.
India is home to the Indo-Aryan language group (74% of the population) and the Dravidian language family (24% of the population). Other languages spoken in India are descended from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burmese linguistic family. Hindi, the most spoken language in India, is the official language of the Government of India. English language, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of "auxiliary official language", it also plays a large role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. The Constitution of India defines 21 official languages that are spoken by a significant part of the population or that have classical status. There are 1652 dialects in India.
Climate humid and warm, mostly tropical, tropical monsoon in the north. India, located in tropical and subequatorial latitudes, fenced off by the wall of the Himalayas from the influence of continental Arctic air masses, is one of the hottest countries in the world with a typical monsoonal climate. The monsoonal rhythm of rainfall determines the rhythm of household work and the whole way of life. 70-80% of the annual precipitation falls during the four months of the rainy season (June-September), when the southwest monsoon arrives and it rains almost incessantly. This is the time of the main field season "kharif". October-November is the post-monsoon period when the rains mostly stop. The winter season (December-February) is dry and cool, when roses and many other flowers bloom, many trees bloom - this is the most pleasant time to visit India. March-May is the hottest, driest season, with temperatures often exceeding 35°C, often rising above 40°C. This is a time of sweltering heat, when the grass burns out, leaves fall off the trees, air conditioners run at full capacity in rich houses.
national animal - tiger.
national bird - peacock.
national flower - lotus.
national fruit - mango.
The national currency is the Indian rupee.
India can be called the cradle of human civilization. The Indians were the first in the world to learn how to grow rice, cotton, sugar cane, and they were the first to breed poultry. India gave the world chess and the decimal system.
The average literacy rate in the country is 52%, with 64% for men and 39% for women.
2. Castes in India
CASTS - division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent.
Caste for many centuries was determined primarily by the profession. The profession, which passed from father to son, often did not change over the course of dozens of generations.
Each caste lives according to its own dharma - with that set of traditional religious prescriptions and prohibitions, the creation of which is attributed to the gods, divine revelation. Dharma determines the norms of behavior for members of each caste, regulates their actions and even feelings. Dharma is that elusive, but immutable, which is pointed out to the child already in the days of his first babbling. Everyone should act in accordance with his own dharma, deviation from dharma is lawlessness - this is how children are taught at home and at school, this is how the brahmin, the mentor and spiritual leader, repeats. And a person grows up in the consciousness of the absolute inviolability of the laws of dharma, their immutability.
At present, the caste system is officially prohibited, and a strict division of crafts or professions depending on the caste is gradually being eliminated, at the same time public policy reward those who have been oppressed for centuries at the expense of members of other castes. It is widely believed that castes are losing their former importance in the modern Indian state. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case.
In fact, the caste system itself has not gone away: when a student enters a school, they ask his religion, and if he professes Hinduism - the caste, in order to know if there is a place for representatives of this caste in this school in accordance with state norms. When applying to a college or university, caste is important in order to correctly assess the threshold scores (the lower the caste, the lower the score is enough for passing score). When applying for a job, caste is again important in order to maintain a balance. Although castes are not forgotten when they arrange the future of their children, supplements with marriage announcements are released weekly to major newspapers in India, in which the columns are divided into religions, and the most voluminous column is with representatives of Hinduism - on castes. Often, under such ads, describing the parameters of both the groom (or bride) and the requirements for prospective applicants (or applicants), the standard phrase "Cast no bar" is placed, which means "Caste does not matter" in translation, but, to be honest, I have a little doubt that a bride from the Brahmin caste will be seriously considered by her parents for a groom from a caste below the Kshatriyas. Yes, inter-caste marriages are also not always approved, but they happen if, for example, the groom occupies a higher position in society than the bride's parents (but this is not a mandatory requirement - cases are different). In such marriages, the caste of children is determined by the father. So, if a girl from a Brahmin family marries a Kshatriya boy, then their children will belong to the Kshatriya caste. If a Kshatriya boy marries a Veishya girl, then their children will also be considered Kshatriyas.
The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the fact that the corresponding column has disappeared from the once a decade censuses of the population. The last time information about the number of castes was published in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that function as stand-alone social groups. In 2011, India plans to conduct a general census, which will take into account the caste of the inhabitants of this country.
The main characteristics of the Indian caste:
. endogamy (marriages exclusively between members of a caste);
. hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste);
. the prohibition to share a meal with representatives of other castes, as well as to have physical contact with them;
. recognition of a firmly fixed place for each caste in the hierarchical structure of society as a whole;
. restrictions on choosing a profession;
The Indians believe that Manu is the first person from whom we all descended. Once upon a time, the god Vishnu saved him from the Flood that destroyed the rest of humanity, after which Manu came up with the rules that people should now be guided by. Hindus believe that it was 30 thousand years ago (historians stubbornly date the laws of Manu to the 1st-2nd century BC and generally claim that this collection of instructions is a compilation of the works of various authors). Like most other religious precepts, the laws of Manu are distinguished by exceptional meticulousness and attention to the smallest details. human life- from baby swaddling to recipes. But there are also much more fundamental things. It is according to the laws of Manu that all Indians are divided into four estates - varnas.
Very often they confuse varnas, of which there are only four, with castes, of which there are a great many. A caste is a rather small community of people united by profession, nationality and place of residence. And varnas are more like such categories as workers, entrepreneurs, employees and intellectuals.
There are four main varnas: Brahmins (officials), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (peasants, workers, servants). The rest are "untouchables".
The Brahmins are the highest caste in India.
Brahmins emerged from the mouth of Brahma. The meaning of the life of the Brahmins is moksha, or liberation.
These are scientists, ascetics, priests. (teachers and priests)
Today Brahmins most often work as officials.
The most famous is Jawaharlal Nehru.
In a typical rural area, the highest stratum of the caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting from 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local shrines and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar sub-caste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to plow or do certain types of manual work; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate allotments, but only not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.
A Brahman is not entitled to eat food prepared outside his caste, but members of all other castes may eat from the hands of Brahmins. In choosing food, a Brahmin observes many prohibitions. Members of the Vaishnava caste (who worship the god Vishnu) have been vegetarian since the 4th century, when it became widespread; some other castes of Shiva-worshipping Brahmins (Shaiva Brahmins) do not abstain from meat in principle, but abstain from the meat of animals included in the diet of the lower castes.
Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most high or middle status castes, with the exception of those considered "impure". Brahmin priests, as well as members of a number of religious orders, are often recognized by "caste signs" - patterns painted on the forehead with white, yellow or red paint. But such marks only indicate belonging to the main sect and characterize this person as worshiping, for example, Vishnu or Shiva, and not as a subject of a certain caste or sub-caste.
Brahmins, to a greater extent than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for by their varna. For many centuries, scribes, scribes, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials came out of their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.
In dealing with the rest of the population, the Brahmins do not allow reciprocity; thus, they accept money or gifts from members of other castes, but they themselves never make gifts of a ritual or ceremonial nature. Among the Brahmin castes there is no complete equality, but even the lowest of them stands above the rest of the highest castes.
The mission of a member of the Brahmin caste is to learn, teach, receive gifts and give gifts. By the way, all Indian programmers are Brahmins.
Kshatriyas
Warriors who came out of the hands of Brahma.These are warriors, rulers, kings, nobles, rajas, maharajas.
The most famous is Buddha Shakyamuni
For a kshatriya, the main thing is dharma, the fulfillment of duty.
Following the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landlords, possibly associated with former ruling houses (eg Rajput princes in North India). Traditional occupations in such castes are the work of managers on estates and service in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy their former power and authority. In ritual terms, kshatriyas are immediately behind the brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower podcast (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man of a podcast below her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to take food from the Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.
Vaishya
Arising from the thighs of Brahma.
These are artisans, merchants, farmers, entrepreneurs (strata that are engaged in trade).
The Gandhi family is from the Vaishyas, and at one time the fact that it was born with the Nehru Brahmins caused a huge scandal.
The main life stimulus is artha, or the desire for wealth, for property, for hoarding.
The third category includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show such an attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict about the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of the Vaishyas is trade and banking, they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landlords and village entrepreneurs, not directly participating in the cultivation of the land.
Shudra
Came out from the feet of Brahma.
Peasant caste. (Labors, servants, artisans, workers)
The main aspiration at the sudra stage is kama. These are pleasures, pleasant experiences delivered by the senses.
Mithun Chakraborty from Disco Dancer is a Sudra.
They, due to their numbers and ownership of a significant part of the local land, play an important role in solving the social and political issues of some areas. Shudras eat meat, marriage of widows and divorced women is allowed. The lower sudras are numerous podcasts whose profession is of a highly specialized nature. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, buttermakers, distillers, masons, hairdressers, musicians, leather workers (those who sew products from finished - dressed leather), butchers, scavengers and many others. The members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or trade; however, if the sudra is able to acquire land, any of them can take up agriculture. Members of many artisan and other professional castes have a traditional relationship with the higher castes, which consists in the provision of services for which no monetary allowance is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village, whose requests are satisfied by this representative of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he manufactures and repairs inventory and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.
Untouchables
Engaged in the dirtiest work, often beggars or very poor people.
They are outside of Hindu society.
Activities such as tanning or slaughtering animals are seen as clearly defiling, and while these jobs are very important to the community, those who do them are considered untouchables. They are engaged in cleaning dead animals from the streets and fields, toilets, dressing skins, cleaning sewers. They work as scavengers, tanners, flayers, potters, prostitutes, laundresses, shoemakers, and are hired for the most difficult work in mines, construction sites, etc. That is, everyone who comes into contact with one of the three dirty things indicated in the laws of Manu - sewage, corpses and clay - or leads a wandering life on the street.
In many ways they are outside of Hindu society, they were called "outcasts", "low", "registered" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijanas" ("children of God"), which became widely used. But they themselves prefer to call themselves "dalits" - "broken". Members of these castes are prohibited from using public wells and pumps. You can not walk on the sidewalks, so as not to inadvertently come into contact with a representative of the highest caste, because they will have to be cleansed after such contact in the temple. In some areas of cities and villages, they are generally forbidden to appear. Under the ban for Dalits and visiting temples, only a few times a year they are allowed to cross the threshold of sanctuaries, after which the temple is subjected to a thorough ritual purification. If a Dalit wants to buy something in a store, he must put money at the entrance and shout from the street what he needs - the purchase will be taken out and left on the doorstep. Dalit is forbidden to start a conversation with a representative of a higher caste, to call him on the phone.
After laws were passed in some states of India to penalize canteen owners for refusing to feed Dalits, most catering establishments set up special cupboards with utensils for them. True, if the dining room does not have a separate room for Dalits, they have to dine outside.
Until recently, most Hindu temples were closed to the untouchables, there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than the set number of steps. The nature of the caste barriers is such that it is believed that the Harijans continue to defile members of the "pure" castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in other social settings and situations, such as being in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable may have physical contact with members of higher castes and not defile them, in his native village, untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.
When Ramita Navai, a British journalist of Indian origin, decided to make a revolutionary film that would reveal to the world the terrible truth about the life of the untouchables (Dalits), she endured a lot. Courageously looked at the Dalit teenagers, frying and eating rats. Little children splashing in the gutter and playing with the parts of a dead dog. To a housewife carving their rotten carcass of a pig into neater pieces. But when the well-groomed journalist was taken with her to the work shift by the ladies from the caste, which traditionally cleans toilets by hand, the poor thing vomited right in front of the camera. “Why do these people live like this?! - the journalist asked us in the last seconds documentary film Dalit means broken. Yes, because the child of the Brahmins spent the morning and evening hours in prayer, and the son of a kshatriya at the age of three was put on a horse and taught to swing a saber. For a Dalit, the ability to live in the mud is his prowess, his skill. The Dalits know better than anyone: those who are afraid of dirt will die faster than others.
There are hundreds of untouchable castes.
Every fifth Indian is Dalit - this is at least 200 million people.
Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that one who observes the rules of his caste, in future life rises by birth to a higher caste, the one who violates these rules is generally incomprehensible who he will become in his next life.
The first three high estates of the Varnas were ordered to undergo an initiation ceremony, after which they were called twice-born. Members of the high castes, especially the Brahmins, then put on the “sacred thread” over their shoulders. The twice-born are allowed to study the Vedas, but only Brahmans could preach them. The Shudras were strictly forbidden not only to study, but even to listen to the words of the Vedic teachings.
Clothing, despite all its seeming uniformity, is different for different castes and noticeably distinguishes a member of a high caste from a member of a low one. Some wrap the thighs with a wide strip of cloth that falls to the ankles, while others should not cover the knees, women of some castes should drape their bodies in a strip of cloth of at least seven or nine meters, while women of others should not use fabric longer than four or five on a sari. meters, some were ordered to wear a certain type of jewelry, others were forbidden, some could use an umbrella, others had no right to do so, etc. etc. The type of dwelling, food, even vessels for its preparation - everything is determined, everything is prescribed, everything is studied from childhood by a member of each caste.
That is why in India it is very difficult to pass oneself off as a member of some other caste - such an imposture will be immediately exposed. Only he can do this who has studied the dharma of a foreign caste for many years and has had the opportunity to practice it. And even then he can only succeed so far from his locality, where they know nothing about his village or city. And that is why the most terrible punishment has always been exclusion from the caste, the loss of one's social face, the severance of all industrial ties.
Even the untouchables, who from century to century did the dirtiest work, brutally suppressed and exploited by members of the higher castes, those untouchables who were humiliated and disdained as something unclean, they were still considered members of the caste society. They had their own dharma, they could be proud of their adherence to its rules and maintained their long-established industrial relations. They had their own well-defined caste face and their own well-defined place, albeit in the lowest layers of this multi-layered hive.
Bibliography:
1. Guseva N.R. - India in the mirror of centuries. Moscow, VECHE, 2002
2. Snesarev A.E. - Ethnographic India. Moscow, Nauka, 1981
3. Material from Wikipedia - India:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F
4. Online Encyclopedia Around the World - India:
http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/strany_mira/INDIYA.html
5. Marry an Indian: life, traditions, features:
http://tomarryindian.blogspot.com/
6. Interesting articles about tourism. India. Women of India.
http://turistua.com/article/258.htm
7. Material from Wikipedia - Hinduism:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC
8. Bharatiya.ru - pilgrimage and travel through India, Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet.
http://www.bharatiya.ru/index.html
Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most castes of higher or middle status.
Brahmins, to a greater extent than other varnas, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for by their varna. For many centuries, scribes, clerks, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials came out of their midst for many centuries. Even in the first half of the 20th century, in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government posts.
Historically, the Brahmins were priests, as well as teachers, monks, scientists; in the era of feudalism, most representatives of the Brahmins were already judges, officials, landowners. They were considered the highest variety. They make up about 2-5% of the population of India. In 1931 they made up 4.32% of the total population of British India. The murder of a Brahmin was the most serious crime in ancient India, and is such in Hinduism.
see also
Write a review on the article "Brahmins"
Notes
An excerpt characterizing the Brahmins
“Father, father, sin on you, you have a son!” she spoke, suddenly turning from pallor into a bright color.- Father, what did you say, God forgive you. - She crossed herself. “God, forgive him. Mother, what is this? ... - she turned to Princess Marya. She got up and almost crying began to collect her purse. She was evidently both frightened and ashamed that she enjoyed the blessings in the house where they could say this, and it was a pity that she now had to be deprived of the blessings of this house.
- Well, what are you looking for? - said Princess Mary. Why did you come to me?...
“No, I’m joking, Pelageushka,” said Pierre. - Princesse, ma parole, je n "ai pas voulu l" offerr, [Princess, I really didn’t want to offend her,] I just did. Don't think, I was joking, - he said, smiling timidly and wanting to make amends for his guilt. - After all, it's me, and he was just joking.
Pelageyushka stopped incredulously, but there was such sincerity of repentance in Pierre’s face, and Prince Andrei looked so meekly at Pelageyushka and then at Pierre that she gradually calmed down.
The wanderer calmed down and, brought back to conversation, then talked for a long time about Father Amphilochius, who was such a holy life that his hand smelled of his hand, and how the monks she knew on her last journey to Kyiv gave her the keys to the caves, and how she, taking crackers with her, spent two days in caves with saints. “I will pray to one, I will read, I will go to another. Pine, I’ll go and kiss again; and such, mother, silence, such grace that you don’t even want to go out into the light of God.
Pierre listened to her attentively and seriously. Prince Andrei left the room. And after him, leaving God's people finish drinking tea, Princess Mary led Pierre into the living room.
“You are very kind,” she told him.
“Ah, I really didn’t think to offend her, as I understand and highly appreciate these feelings!
Princess Mary looked at him silently and smiled tenderly. “After all, I have known you for a long time and love you like a brother,” she said. How did you find Andrew? she asked hastily, not giving him time to say anything in response to her kind words. “He worries me a lot. His health is better in winter, but last spring the wound opened, and the doctor said that he must go for treatment. And morally, I'm very afraid for him. He is not a character like us women to suffer and cry out his grief. He carries it inside himself. Today he is cheerful and lively; but it was your arrival that had such an effect on him: he is rarely like that. If you could persuade him to go abroad! He needs activity, and this smooth, quiet life is ruining him. Others do not notice, but I see.
On September 24, 1932, in India, the right to participate in elections was granted to the untouchable caste. the site decided to tell its readers how the Indian caste system was formed and how it exists in the modern world.
Indian society is divided into estates called castes. Such a division occurred many thousands of years ago and has survived to this day. Hindus believe that, following the rules established in their caste, in the next life you can be born a representative of a slightly higher and more revered caste, take a much better position in society.
Leaving the Indus Valley, Indian arias conquered the country along the Ganges and founded many states here, whose population consisted of two classes, differing in legal and material status. The new Aryan settlers, the victors, took over India and land, and honor, and power, and the defeated non-Indo-European natives were plunged into contempt and humiliation, turned into slavery or into a dependent state, or, pushed into the forests and mountains, led there in inaction of thought a meager life without any culture. This result of the Aryan conquest gave rise to the origin of the four main Indian castes (varnas).
Those original inhabitants of India who were subdued by the power of the sword suffered the fate of captives and became mere slaves. The Indians, who voluntarily submitted, renounced their paternal gods, adopted the language, laws and customs of the conquerors, retained personal freedom, but lost all land property and had to live as workers on the estates of the Aryans, servants and porters, in the homes of rich people. From them came the caste sudra . "Shudra" is not a Sanskrit word. Before becoming the name of one of the Indian castes, it was probably the name of some people. The Aryans considered it below their dignity to enter into marriage alliances with representatives of the Shudra caste. The Shudra women were only concubines among the Aryans.
Over time, sharp differences in fortunes and professions formed between the Aryan conquerors of India themselves. But in relation to the lower caste - the dark-skinned, subjugated native population - they all remained a privileged class. Only the Aryans had the right to read the sacred books; only they were consecrated by a solemn ceremony: a sacred cord was placed on the Aryan, making him “reborn” (or “twice born”, dvija). This rite served as a symbolic distinction of all Aryans from the Shudra caste and the despised native tribes driven into the forests. The consecration was performed by laying on a cord, which is worn laid on the right shoulder and descending obliquely over the chest. Among the Brahmin caste, a cord could be placed on a boy from 8 to 15 years old, and it is made of cotton yarn; among the Kshatriya caste, who received it no earlier than the 11th year, it was made from kushi (Indian spinning plant), and among the Vaishya caste, who received it no earlier than the 12th year, it was made of wool.
Indian society was divided into castes many thousands of years ago.
The "twice-born" Aryans over time divided according to differences in occupation and origin into three estates or castes, which have some similarities with the three estates of medieval Europe: the clergy, the nobility and the middle urban class. The embryos of caste systems among the Aryans existed even in those times when they lived only in the Indus basin: there, from the mass of the agricultural and pastoral population, warlike tribal princes, surrounded by people skilled in military affairs, as well as priests who performed sacrificial rites, already stood out.
During the resettlement of the Aryan tribes further deep into India, to the country of the Ganges, the warlike energy increased in bloody wars with the exterminated natives, and then in a fierce struggle between the Aryan tribes. Until the conquests were completed, all the people were engaged in military affairs. Only when the peaceful possession of the conquered country began, it became possible to develop a variety of occupations, it became possible to choose between different professions, and a new stage in the origin of castes began. The fertility of the Indian land aroused the desire for the peaceful pursuit of livelihoods. From this quickly developed an innate Aryan tendency, according to which it was more pleasant for them to work quietly and enjoy the fruits of their labor than to make heavy military efforts. Therefore, a significant part of the settlers ("Vish") turned to agriculture, which gave abundant harvests, leaving the fight against enemies and the protection of the country to the princes of the tribes and the military nobility formed during the period of conquests. This estate, which was engaged in arable farming and partly in shepherding, soon grew so much that among the Aryans, as in Western Europe, they formed the vast majority of the population. Because the title vaishya "settler", originally designating all Aryan inhabitants in new areas, began to designate only people of the third, working Indian caste, and warriors, kshatriyas and priests, brahmins ("prayers"), who over time became privileged classes, made the names of their professions the names of the two upper castes.
The four above-mentioned Indian estates became completely closed castes (varnas) only when the ancient worship of Indra and other gods of nature rose above brahminism, - a new religious doctrine about Brahma , the soul of the universe, the source of life from which all beings originated and to which all beings will return. This reformed creed gave religious holiness to the division of the Indian nation into castes, especially the priestly caste. It said that in the cycle of life forms passed by all that exist on earth, Brahman is the highest form of being. According to the dogma of the rebirth and transmigration of souls, a being born in a human form must go through all four castes in turn: to be a sudra, a vaishya, a kshatriya, and finally a brahmin; having passed through these forms of existence, it is reunited with Brahma. The only way to achieve this goal is for a person, constantly striving for a deity, to exactly fulfill everything commanded by the Brahmins, honor them, please them with gifts and signs of respect. Offenses against the Brahmins, severely punished on earth, subject the wicked to the most terrible torments of hell and rebirth in the forms of despised animals.
According to the dogma of the transmigration of souls, a person must go through all four castes
Belief in the dependence of the future life on the present was the main pillar of the Indian caste division and the dominion of the priests. The more resolutely the Brahminical clergy placed the dogma of the transmigration of souls at the center of all moral teaching, the more successfully they filled the imagination of the people with terrible pictures of hellish torments, the more honor and influence they acquired. Representatives of the highest caste of the Brahmins are close to the gods; they know the path leading to Brahma; their prayers, sacrifices, holy feats of their asceticism have magical power over the gods, the gods have to fulfill their will; bliss and suffering in the Hereafter depend on them. It is not surprising that with the development of religiosity among the Indians, the power of the Brahmin caste increased, tirelessly praising in their holy teachings reverence and generosity to the Brahmins as the surest ways to obtain bliss, suggesting to the kings that the ruler is obliged to have his advisers and make judges of the Brahmins, is obliged to reward their service with rich content. and pious gifts.
So that the lower Indian castes would not envy the privileged position of the Brahmins and would not encroach on it, the doctrine was developed and vigorously preached that the forms of life for all beings were predetermined by Brahma, and that the progress through the degrees of human rebirths is made only by a calm, peaceful life in given to a person position, faithful performance of duties. So, in one of the oldest parts of the Mahabharata it says: “When Brahma created creatures, he gave them their occupations, each caste had a special activity: for the brahmins - the study of the high Vedas, for the warriors - heroism, for the vaishyas - the art of labor, for the shudras - humility before other colors: therefore ignorant brahmins, infamous warriors, unskillful vaisyas and disobedient sudras are reprehensible."
This dogma, which attributed to every caste, every profession, a divine origin, consoled the humiliated and despised in the insults and deprivations of their present life with the hope of improving their fate in the future existence. He gave the Indian caste hierarchy religious consecration. The division of people into four classes, unequal in their rights, was from this point of view an eternal, unchanging law, the violation of which is the most criminal sin. People have no right to overthrow the caste barriers established between them by God himself; they can achieve the improvement of their lot only by patient obedience.
Mutual relations between the Indian castes were clearly characterized by teaching; that Brahma produced Brahmins from his mouth (or the first man Purusha), Kshatriyas from his hands, Vaishyas from his thighs, Shudras from mud-stained feet, therefore the essence of nature among the Brahmins is “holiness and wisdom”, among the Kshatriyas - “power and strength”, among the Vaishyas - “wealth and profit”, among the Shudras - “service and humility”. The doctrine of the origin of castes from different parts the highest being is set forth in one of the hymns of the latest, most recent book of the Rigveda. There are no caste concepts in the older songs of the Rig Veda. The Brahmins give this hymn an extremely importance, and every true believer brahmin reads it every morning, after bathing. This hymn is the diploma by which the Brahmins legitimized their privileges, their dominion.
Some Brahmins should not eat meat
Thus, the Indian people were led by their history, their inclinations and customs to fall under the yoke of a hierarchy of castes, which turned classes and professions into tribes alien to each other, drowned out all human aspirations, all the inclinations of humanity.
The main characteristics of castes
Each Indian caste has its own characteristics and unique characteristics, rules of existence and behavior.
Brahmins are the highest caste
Brahmins in India are priests and priests in temples. Their position in society has always been considered the highest, even higher than the position of the ruler. At present, representatives of the Brahmin caste are also engaged in the spiritual development of the people: they teach various practices, look after temples, and work as teachers.
Brahmins have a lot of prohibitions:
Men are not allowed to work in the fields and do any manual labor, but women can do various household chores.
A representative of the priestly caste can only marry his own kind, but as an exception, a marriage to a Brahmin from another community is allowed.
A brahmin cannot eat what a person of another caste has prepared: a brahmin would rather starve than accept forbidden food. But he can feed a representative of absolutely any caste.
Some Brahmins are not allowed to eat meat.
Kshatriyas - warrior caste
Representatives of the kshatriyas have always performed the duties of soldiers, guards and policemen.
At present, nothing has changed - kshatriyas are engaged in military affairs or go to administrative work. They can marry not only in their own caste: a man can marry a girl from a lower caste, but a woman is forbidden to marry a man from a lower caste. Kshatriyas are allowed to eat animal products, but they also avoid forbidden food.
Vaishyas, like no one else, monitor the correct preparation of food.
Vaishya
Vaishyas have always been a working class: they were engaged in agriculture, raised cattle, traded.
Now representatives of the Vaishyas are engaged in economic and financial affairs, various trade, banking. Probably, this caste is the most scrupulous in matters related to food intake: vaishyas, like no one else, monitor the correct preparation of food and will never accept defiled dishes.
Sudras are the lowest caste.
The Shudra caste has always existed in the role of peasants or even slaves: they were engaged in the dirtiest and hardest work. Even in our time, this social stratum is the poorest and often lives below the poverty line. Shudras can marry even divorced women.
Untouchables
The untouchable caste stands out separately: such people are excluded from all social relations. They do the dirtiest jobs: cleaning the streets and toilets, burning dead animals, dressing the skin.
Amazingly, the representatives of this caste could not even step on the shadows of representatives of the higher classes. And only recently they were allowed to enter temples and approach people of other classes.
Cast Unique Features
Having a brahmin in the neighborhood, you can give him a lot of gifts, but you should not expect a response. Brahmins never give gifts: they accept but do not give.
In terms of land ownership, sudras can be even more influential than vaishyas.
Untouchables could not step on the shadows of people from the upper classes
The Shudras of the lowest stratum practically do not use money: they are paid for their work with food and household items.You can move to a lower caste, but it is impossible to get a higher caste.
Castes and Modernity
Today, Indian castes have become even more structured, with many different sub-groups called jati.
During the last census of representatives of various castes, there were more than 3 thousand jati. True, this census took place more than 80 years ago.
Many foreigners consider the caste system a relic of the past and believe that the caste system no longer works in modern India. In fact, everything is completely different. Even the Indian government could not come to a consensus regarding such a stratification of society. Politicians are actively working on dividing society into layers during elections, adding to their election promises the protection of the rights of a particular caste.
In modern India, more than 20 percent of the population belongs to the untouchable caste: they have to live in their own separate ghettos or outside the settlement. Such people should not go to shops, government and medical institutions, and even use public transport.
In modern India, more than 20% of the population belongs to the untouchable caste.
There is a completely unique subgroup in the untouchable caste: the attitude of society towards it is rather contradictory. This includes homosexuals, transvestites and eunuchs who make a living by prostitution and begging tourists for coins. But what a paradox: the presence of such a person at a holiday is considered a very good sign.
Another amazing podcast of the untouchables is a pariah. These are people who are completely expelled from society - marginalized. Previously, it was possible to become a pariah even by touching such a person, but now the situation has changed a little: a pariah becomes either born from an inter-caste marriage or from pariah parents.
Divided people into four estates, called varnas. The first varna, the brahmins, destined to enlighten and rule mankind, he created from his head or mouth; the second, the kshatriyas (warriors), the protectors of society, from the hand; the third, the vaishyas, the feeders of the state, from the abdomen; the fourth, sudras, from the legs, dedicating it to the eternal destiny - to serve the highest varnas. Over time, the varnas subdivided into many podcasts and castes, called jati in India. The European name is caste.
So, the four ancient castes of India, their rights and obligations according to the ancient law of Manu *, strictly enforced in.
(* Laws of Manu - an ancient Indian collection of prescriptions for religious, moral and social duty (dharma), today also called the "law of the Aryans" or the "code of honor of the Aryans").
Brahmins
Brahman "the son of the sun, a descendant of Brahma, a god among people" (the usual titles of this estate), according to the law of Menu, is the head of all created creatures; the whole universe is subject to him; other mortals owe the preservation of their lives to his intercession and prayers; his all-powerful curse can instantly destroy fearsome warlords with their numerous hordes, chariots and war elephants. Brahman can create new worlds; may even give birth to new gods. A Brahmin should be given more honor than a king.
The inviolability of the Brahmin and his life are protected by bloody laws. If a sudra dares to verbally insult a brahmana, then the law orders to drive a red-hot iron into his throat, ten inches deep; and if he takes it into his head to give some instruction to the Brahmin, the unfortunate one pours boiling oil over his mouth and ears. On the other hand, it is allowed for anyone to take a false oath or give false testimony before the court, if these actions can save the Brahmin from condemnation.
A Brahman cannot, under any condition, be executed or punished, either bodily or financially, although he would be convicted of the most outrageous crimes: the only punishment to which he is subject is removal from his fatherland, or expulsion from the caste.
The Brahmins are divided into laymen and spiritualists, and are subdivided according to their occupations into different classes. It is noteworthy that among the spiritual brahmins, the priests occupy the lower rung, and the higher rung are those who have devoted themselves only to the interpretation of sacred books. The worldly brahmins are the king's advisers, judges and other higher officials.
Only the brahmin is granted the right to interpret the sacred books, perform worship and predict the future; but he forfeits this last right if he makes a mistake three times in his predictions. Brahman can predominantly heal, for "illness is the punishment of the gods"; only a brahmin can be a judge, because the civil and penal laws of the Hindus are included in their sacred books.
The whole way of life of a Brahmin is built on the observance of a whole set of the strictest rules. For example, all brahmins are forbidden to accept gifts from persons unworthy (lower castes). Music, dancing, hunting and gambling are also forbidden to all Brahmins. But the use of wine and all kinds of intoxicating things, such as: onions, garlic, eggs, fish, any meat, except from animals slaughtered as a sacrifice to the gods, are forbidden only to the lower Brahmins.
A Brahman will defile himself if he sits at the same table even with the king, not to mention members of the lower castes or his own wives. He is obliged not to look at the sun at certain hours and to leave the house during the rain; he cannot step over the rope to which the cow is tied, and must pass by this sacred animal or idol, leaving it only to his right.
In case of need, a brahmin is allowed to beg from people of the three higher castes and engage in trade; but by no means can he serve anyone.
A Brahmin who wants to be awarded the honorary title of interpreter of laws and supreme guru prepares for this with various hardships. He renounces marriage, indulges in a thorough study of the Vedas in some monastery for 12 years, refraining from even talking in the last 5 and explaining himself only by signs; thus, he finally reaches the desired goal, and becomes a spiritual master.
The financial support of the Brahmin caste is also provided for by law. Generosity to the Brahmins is a religious virtue for all believers, and is the direct duty of the rulers. Upon the death of a rootless Brahmin, his property turns not into the treasury, but into the caste. Brahmin does not pay any taxes. Thunder would kill a king who dared to encroach on the person or property of a Brahmin; a poor brahmin is kept at public expense.
The life of a brahmin is divided into 4 stages.
First stage begins even before birth, when learned men are sent to the pregnant wife of a Brahmin for conversations, in order "thus to prepare the child for the perception of wisdom." At 12 days, the baby is given a name, at three years old, his head is shaved, leaving only a piece of hair called kudumi. A few years later, the child is placed in the arms of a spiritual mentor (guru). Education with this guru usually lasts from 7-8 to 15 years. During the entire period of education, which consists mainly of the study of the Vedas, the student is obliged to blindly obey his preceptor and all members of his family. He is often entrusted with the blackest domestic work, and he must perform them unquestioningly. The will of the guru replaces his law and conscience; his smile is the best reward. At this stage, the child is considered single-born.
Second phase begins after the ritual of initiation or rebirth, which the young man goes through after the end of the teaching. From this moment on, he is twice born. During this period, he marries, brings up his family and performs the duties of a brahmin.
The third period of the life of a brahmin - vanaprastra. Having reached the age of 40, a Brahmin enters the third period of his life, called vanaprastra. He must retire to desert places and become a hermit. Here he covers his nakedness with tree bark or the skin of a black antelope; cuts neither nails nor hair; sleeps on a stone or on the ground; must spend days and nights "without a house, without fire, in perfect silence, and eating only roots and fruits." The Brahman spends his days in prayer and mortification.
After spending 22 years in prayer and fasting in this way, the Brahmin enters the fourth department of life, called sannyas. Only then is he freed from all external rites. The old hermit goes deep into perfect contemplation. The soul of a Brahmin who has died in the state of sannyas immediately acquires merger with the deity (nirvana); and his body in a sitting position is lowered into a pit and sprinkled around with salt.
The color of the Brahmin's clothes depended on what spiritual order they were in. Sanyasis, monks who renounced the world wore orange clothes, family ones - white.
Kshatriyas
The second caste is made up of kshatriyas, warriors. According to the law of Menu, members of this caste could make sacrifices, and the study of the Vedas was made a special duty for princes and heroes; but later the Brahmins left them one permission to read or listen to the Vedas, without analyzing or interpreting them, and appropriated the right to explain the texts to themselves.
Kshatriyas should give alms, but not accept them, avoid vices and sensual pleasures, live simply, "as befits a warrior." The law says that "the priestly caste cannot exist without the warrior caste, nor can the last without the first, and that the tranquility of the whole world depends on the consent of both, on the union of knowledge and the sword."
With few exceptions, all kings, princes, generals and first rulers belong to the second caste; the judicial part and the management of education were from ancient times in the hands of the Brahmins (Brahmins). Kshatriyas are allowed to consume any meat except beef. This caste was formerly divided into three parts: all the ruling and non-possessing princes (rays) and their children (rayanutras) belonged to the upper class.
Kshatriyas wore red clothes.
Vaishya
The third caste is the Vaishyas. Previously, they also participated, both in sacrifices and in the right to read the Vedas, but later, through the efforts of the brahmins, they lost these advantages. Although the Vaishyas were much lower than the Kshatriyas, they still occupied an honorable place in society. They were supposed to be engaged in trade, arable farming and cattle breeding. The property rights of a vaishya were respected and his fields were considered inviolable. He had the right, consecrated by religion, to put money into growth.
The highest castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas - used all three scarves, senar, every caste - their own, and were called twice-born, as opposed to once-born - Shudras.
Shudra
The duty of a sudra, Menu says briefly, is to serve the three higher castes. It is best for a sudra to serve a brahmin, for his sake a kshatriya, and finally a vaishya. In such a single case, if he does not find an opportunity to enter the service, he is allowed to engage in a useful craft. The soul of a shudra, who has served a brahmin with zeal and honesty all his life, is reborn into a person of the highest caste upon resettlement.
A sudra is forbidden even to look at the Vedas. A Brahmin has no right not only to interpret the Vedas to a Shudra, but is also obliged to read them silently in the presence of the latter. A brahmin who allows himself to interpret the law to a sudra, or explain to him the ways of repentance, will be punished in hell Asamarite.
A sudra must eat the leftovers of his masters and wear their rags. He is forbidden to acquire anything, "so that he does not take it into his head to become proud of the temptation of the sacred Brahmins." If a sudra verbally insults a veishya or a kshatriya, then his tongue is cut out; if he dares to sit down beside the Brahmin, or take his place, then a red-hot iron is applied to the more guilty part of the body. The name of a sudra, says Menou's law, is a swear word, and the penalty for killing him does not exceed the amount that is paid for the death of an unimportant domestic animal, such as a dog or cat. Killing a cow is considered a much more reprehensible act: killing a sudra is a misdemeanor; killing a cow is a sin!
Bondage is the natural position of a sudra, and the master cannot release him by giving him leave; "for, says the law: who but death can free a sudra from the state of nature?"
It is rather difficult for us Europeans to understand such an alien world, and we, involuntarily, want to bring everything under our own concepts, and this is what misleads us. So, for example, according to the concepts of the Hindus, the Shudras constitute a class of people, designated by nature for service in general, but at the same time they are not considered slaves, they do not constitute the property of private individuals.
The attitude of the masters towards the Shudras, despite the given examples of an inhuman view of them, from a religious point of view, was determined by civil law, especially the measure and method of punishments, which in everything coincided with the patriarchal punishments allowed by folk custom in the relationship of a father to his son or an older brother to junior, husband to wife, and guru to disciple.
Impure castes
As almost everywhere a woman was subjected to discrimination and all kinds of restrictions, so in India the severity of the separation of castes weighs much more on a woman than on a man. A man, upon entering into a second marriage, is allowed to choose a wife from a lower caste, except for a sudra. So, for example, a Brahmin can marry a woman of the second and even the third caste; children from this mixed marriage will take middle degree between the father and mother castes. A woman, by marrying a man of a lower caste, commits a crime: she defiles herself and all her offspring. Shudras can marry only among themselves.
The mixing of any of the castes with the Sudras gives rise to impure castes, of which the most contemptible is that which comes from the mixing of the Sudras with the Brahmin. The members of this caste are called Chandalas, and must be executioners or flayers; the touch of a chandala entails expulsion from the caste.
Untouchables
Below the impure castes there is still a miserable kind of pariahs. Together with the Chandalas they engage in the lowest works. The pariahs skin the carrion, work it out, and eat the meat; but they abstain from cow meat. Their touch defiles not only a person, but also objects. They have their own special wells; near the cities they are assigned a special quarter, surrounded by a moat and slingshots. In villages, they also have no right to show themselves, but must hide in forests, caves and swamps.
A Brahmin, defiled by the shadow of a pariah, must bathe in the sacred waters of the Ganges, for only they are able to wash away such a stain of shame.
Even lower than the Pariah are the Pulai, who live on the Malabar coast. Slaves of the Nairs, they are forced to take refuge in damp dungeons, and do not dare to raise their eyes to the noble Hindu. Seeing a Brahmin or Nair from afar, the pulais emit a loud roar to warn the masters of their proximity, and while the "masters" are waiting on the road, they must hide in a cave, in a thicket of the forest, or climb a tall tree. Whoever did not have time to hide, the Nairs cut down like an unclean reptile. Pulayi live in terrible slovenliness, eating carrion and any meat except cow.
But even the pulai can rest for a moment from the general contempt that overwhelms him; there are human beings even more miserable, lower than him: they are pariars, lower because, sharing all the humiliation of the pulai, they allow themselves to eat cow meat too! Muslims, who also do not respect the integrity of fat Indian cows and acquaint them with the location of their kitchen, all of them, in his opinion, morally, completely coincide with the contemptible pariar.