Arabian tale - Tunisia. G
The mausoleum was built in the western part of the cemetery, the construction was completed in 1963. The courtyard and cladding are made of white Carrara marble, one of the most valuable varieties in the world. The cost of the project was not disclosed.
In the 70s, Habib Bourguiba had already carefully prepared for his death. In 1976, his marble coffin was made. He left precise instructions to his son Khabib Jr. as to which world leaders to invite to the funeral, the funeral process had to be delayed by two days so that these leaders could arrive. Habib planned a ceremonial procession for his body from the palace of Carthage in Tunisia to Monastir.
These plans were not destined to come true. Habib Bourguiba died at his home in Monastir on April 6, 2000, there was no longer any talk of any procession.
Habib Bourguiba was buried at the mausoleum on April 8 after a small honorary ceremony at his home and a religious ceremony at the Habib Bourguiba Mosque. Other leaders were present: Jacques Chirac (President of France), Abdelaziz Bouteflika (President of Algeria), Yasser Arafat (Palestinian leader), Mohammed Hosni Mubarak (President of Egypt). The ceremony was brief and not even televised. In Tunisia, mourning was declared for 7 days.
An interesting fact is that by that time relatives of Khabib Bourguiba had already been buried in the mausoleum, but we will talk about this a little later.
What to watch
In front of the alley, pay attention to two mini-mausoleums. The first of them is called the “Mausoleum of the Martyrs in the Struggle for Independence”, several people are now buried here. The second is intended for condolences, that is, wreaths are placed here on memorable dates.
After walking along the alley, you will get to the central gate, which is closed. These gates are worth admiring, although the decor on them shines differently than before. See below a small gallery of photos, click on the photo to enlarge.
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Turn right and walk along the fence, after 100 meters there will be an entrance for visitors. There you will pass the security control, and you can see the mausoleum.
The courtyard of the mausoleum is small - about 20 by 30 meters. Along the perimeter, the courtyard is surrounded by a beautiful colonnade in the same way as it is done in the courtyards of mosques.
The towers (we can't call them minarets because it's not a mosque) are 25 meters high. The gilded central dome looks beautiful, the secondary domes are green. The arrangement of the domes exactly repeats the architecture of the classical Maghrib mosque.
The main entrance to the mausoleum is a massive bronze door. Pay attention to the inscription: “Great fighter. The builder of the new Tunisia. Women's Liberator. Attention, this entrance is closed! See below a small gallery of photos, click on the photo to enlarge.
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Two doors lead inside, both are to the right of the main entrance (bronze door). Through the first door you can get up to the balcony, from where you can look at the marble sarcophagus from all sides from the height of the second floor (). Most visitors do not know about this door and balcony.
The second door leads to the first floor. Along the corridor on the left there will be a grate through which you can look at the sarcophagus. Naturally, the body of Khabib Bourguiba is covered with a lid, in Islamic countries it is not customary to put the body on display. Pay attention to the stand for reading the Koran.
There are three rooms to the right along the corridor. In two, relatives of Khabib Bourguiba are buried, and in the central room there is a small museum with personal belongings. The most important and interesting personal belongings of Habib Bourguiba are exhibited in two places: here in the mausoleum and in
The city of Monastir was the birthplace of the great and powerful Habib Bourguiba, the first president of independent Tunisia. Bourguiba was born here on August 3, 1903. From a young age, he began a movement for agitation against the French colonial authorities, for which he was repeatedly arrested. After the end of the war, he traveled to European countries, collecting money in support of the anti-colonial movement in Tunisia. On July 25, 1957, his goal was achieved - Tunisia was proclaimed a republic, and Habib Bourguiba became its president. He carried out a number of major social, economic and political reforms in Tunisia, for which he is still revered not only by Monastir, but by the whole of Tunisia.
Even during his lifetime, in 1963, Habib Bourguiba built a mausoleum, which was intended as a tomb for himself and for his family members.
general description
In the western part of the ancient Muslim cemetery is the mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba. A wide alley leads to it. Of all the museums located in this small town, perhaps the most unusual monument that cannot be overlooked is the Mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba in Monastir. Its appearance bears some resemblance to what mosques look like, with two thin octagonal minarets of magnificent Italian limestone on either side of a huge golden ribbed dome in the center and two small green domes on the sides. Behind the golden dome is another green, smaller one. Bourguiba himself is buried inside the Monastir mausoleum (the sarcophagus is located in the main building, under the golden dome), his parents, first wife and close relatives (in the neighboring building, next to the green dome).
Long paved paths lead to the Khabib Bourguiba Mausoleum. At the end are two octagonal pavilions with Arabic inscriptions on the inside.
Around the main building there are beautiful corridors large enough to hide from the scorching sun of Monastir. Along the corridors, on the sides, there are skillfully decorated columns with inscriptions in Arabic, which are also applied to their inner parts.
At the end of a long paved road there is a beautiful gate with artistic forging. They are located in front of the building with the main entrance to the Habib Bourguiba Mausoleum. Outside, the building is decorated with marble, stone carvings and ceramic statues.
The mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba has a very impressive appearance, not only from the outside, but also from the inside. The building itself was built in a modern style - after 1963, the Manastir mausoleum was completed and expanded twice (in 1978 and 1980), until the death of Bourguiba himself in 2000.
The main sarcophagus is made of marble. It is installed in a separate room on a pedestal. This is exactly the place where the body of the great politician in Monastir rests.
From the inside, you can climb the stairs leading to the top of the mausoleum. From there, a magnificent view of the surroundings of the tomb opens. From here you can also see the golden dome up close.
The mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba in Monastir houses some of the president's personal belongings. Including his desk and chair, clothes, glasses and other items. All this is located in the museum exposition, open to visitors of the Monastir mausoleum.
Here you can see several of his portraits made in different periods. The special appearance of the buildings of the mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba has been used more than once as scenery for films. Especially for those whose action takes place in ancient times. The doors of the mausoleum are open to visitors every day, there is no entrance fee.
| Prime Minister of Tunisia | ||
|---|---|---|
| April 15, 1956 - July 25, 1957 | ||
Monastir, Tunisia
ibid., Tunisia
2) Wassila Ben Ammar
- University of Paris
In the 1920s he worked as a lawyer in France. Upon returning to his homeland, he began to take an active part in the anti-colonial movement: in 1934 he became one of the founders of the "new" party "Destur" that led the movement for independence from France. He was arrested several times and expelled from the country by the colonial authorities, and eventually moved on to negotiations with them. March 20, 1956 Tunisia was proclaimed an independent state, July 25, 1957 the monarchy was abolished, Bourguiba took over as president.
When he came to power, he considered the development of the economy, the conduct of a neutral foreign policy, which distinguished him from other Arab leaders, the modernization of the country's educational system and the fight against gender inequality, as his main tasks. Established a personality cult that proclaimed him the "Supreme Fighter" and a one-party system. The end of Khabib's reign was marked by an increase in Islamism and clientelism, as well as a deterioration in his health. On November 7, 1987, the President of Tunisia, for health reasons, in accordance with the constitution, was removed by Prime Minister Ben Ali and placed under house arrest in a residence in his hometown of Monastir, where he died on April 6, 2000 and was buried in a mausoleum previously built for himself.
Origin
He came from a noble Ottoman family who moved from Istanbul to the Libyan city of Sirte. In 1793, Habib's great-grandfather Mohammed Bourguiba el-Kebir moved to Tunisia due to conflicts between Libya and the Ottoman Empire and, together with his family, personal doctor, slaves and goods, settled in Monastir in the area where immigrants from Tripoli lived. The settlers quickly settled in a new place, Muhammad gained fame in the city as a philanthropist. In 1803, Bourguiba's grandfather Mohammed was born, with the death of Mohammed Sr. he inherited his fortune.
Years later, the ruling Husseinid dynasty began to implement costly reforms to prevent colonization and create European-like structures, and began paying off the public debt, which caused higher taxes, and popular uprisings broke out in 1864, which were violently suppressed. Mohammed and his brother were arrested as influential figures in Monastir, placed in a camp west of the city and released on the condition of renunciation of family property. At that time, the 14-year-old father of Habib Ali was taken hostage by General Ahmed Zuruk, who arrested the brothers, who saw potential in the boy and offered Ali to enlist in the army. That same night, his father passed away, and Bourguiba's father accepted the offer.
In 1880, Ali retired and married, a year later becoming the father of his eldest son Muhammad, then four more sons, one of whom died in infancy, and two daughters. After some time, Habib's father headed the "Tripoli" district and became part of the city leadership.
Early life and education
According to an official document, he was born on August 3, 1903, but later stated that he was born a year earlier, and the incorrect date is the result of a clerical error made when entering law school in 1924; according to another version, the mistake was made by his parents intentionally in order to avoid his son being drafted into the army. He was the youngest of the sons in the family, was brought up surrounded by women, which subsequently inspired him to fight for gender equality. Despite financial difficulties, the father managed to give the children an education: Habib entered the Franco-Arab school in Monastir, but soon Ali, dissatisfied with the quality of education there, in 1907 sent his son to the capital of the country, the city of Tunis, where he entered Sadiqi College the same year , where most of the time was spent teaching the Koran. He lived in the old city with his brother Mohammed.
In 1917, together with his father, he attended the funeral of a prominent nationalist Bashir Sfar, then met the future founder of the Destour party, which fought against colonial rule, Abdelaziz Salbi, who returned to the country from exile. In the same year, Habib failed the Arabic exam required for admission to an administrative position and was retained for the 1919-1920 academic year, however, due to hospitalization caused by food poisoning, being weakened by poor living conditions, he was forced to quit study and move to his brother Mahmud in El-Kef, where he rotated in the circle of his friends and lived until January 1922. There he decided to continue his studies and wanted to study law in the metropolis, having met with understanding only from Mahmud, and with his help he entered the Carnot Lyceum, where he faced discrimination against the indigenous population. Being accepted into the class of underachievers, he studied well and spent a lot of time in libraries. In 1924 he entered the University of Paris, where he studied law and political science and met his first wife Mathilde Lorraine, from whom a son, Khabib Jr., was born in 1927.
The beginning of a political career
In the same year he graduated from the university and returned to his homeland with his family, where he immediately took part in the anti-colonial movement, joined the Destour party and became a member of its executive committee and began to publish in newspapers. In 1931, he was arrested by the authorities of the metropolis on charges of inciting ethnic hatred, after which he began to publish the newspaper L'Action Tunisienne, in which he called for more active resistance to the French. In August 1933, due to disagreements with the party's policy, he left it and on March 11, 1934 founded the "new Destour" party, becoming the general secretary of its Politburo.
In September 1934, together with his supporters, he was again arrested. He was held in the Saharan fortress of Borj-Leboeuf, from where, along with most of his like-minded people, he was released in April 1936. After the brutal suppression of the anti-colonial uprising on April 9, 1938, on June 10, 1939, he was once again arrested along with his associates on charges of plotting against the authorities and inciting civil war. In the autumn of the same year he was sentenced to imprisonment, in May 1940 he was transferred to France, where he served time in several prisons, until in the autumn of 1942 he was released by the German administration and sent to Châlons-sur-Saone. Trying to weaken the resistance in the French colonies in North Africa, the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in January 1943 gave Khabib an official reception in Rome, then convinced him to circulate an appeal to the Tunisian people to stop the struggle, but on April 7, 1943, upon returning to his homeland, Bourguiba repeated the theses of the message sent from prison last August: Germany is doomed to lose, and the independence of Tunisia, which Habib called a matter of life and death, can only be achieved after the victory of the Allies.
Fight for independence
After the end of World War II, he made several fruitless attempts to start negotiations with the colonial authorities, after which he came to the conclusion that the Tunisian struggle for independence needed international coverage. In March 1945, he secretly left the country, arriving in Libya on a fishing boat, then reaching Cairo, from where he traveled to Syria and Lebanon, visited the headquarters of the League of Arab States and the UN in December 1946 in order to draw attention to the decolonization of Tunisia and help in this . September 8, 1949 returned to his homeland. In April of the following year, he presented a seven-point program to abolish the colonial administration and restore the independence of Tunisia, in 1951 he again traveled around the world to promote his own plan. Due to the refusal of the French government to cooperate, he called for an uprising against the colonial authorities and was arrested on January 18, 1952, then transferred to serve his sentence in the metropolis.
In 1954, Pierre Mendès-France took over as Prime Minister of France, who began the process of decolonization of Tunisia. June 1, 1955 Khabib was released. After the country was proclaimed autonomy, the hard-to-reach negotiations continued, and on March 20, 1956, Tunisia was proclaimed independent, Bourguiba took the posts of prime minister, minister of foreign affairs and chairman of the National Assembly.
Presidency
July 25, 1957 the monarchy was abolished, Habib became president of the republic. He established authoritarian rule in Tunisia, endowing himself with broad powers, limited the freedoms of the population, organized censorship and persecution of political opponents, as well as a cult of his own personality, glorifying him as the "supreme fighter" of the nation. A new anthem was adopted, containing a mention of him as the leader of the country. He carried out social ones aimed at modernizing healthcare and education, eliminating illiteracy, expanding women's rights - he gave them the right to divorce, banned polygamy and set the minimum marriageable age at 17, publicly condemned the wearing of a burqa, calling it a "hated rag"; and economic reforms, which aimed to develop the country's infrastructure and combat the practice of waqf. After a failed experiment in which the concept was introduced socialist economy, carried out liberal reforms in the 1970s, which led to the growth and strengthening of the private sector. In March 1975, the National Assembly amended the constitution, declaring Bourguiba president for life. In the 1980s, he faced increasing poverty of the population and the threat from the Renaissance Party. The fall in oil prices at the end of 1983 worsened the already unfavorable economic situation, and the government was forced to apply for a loan from the International Monetary Fund, provided on the terms of budget cuts and reforms. On December 29, 1983, the abolition of benefits for the production of bread and flour was announced, which caused their increase in price and led to
On the territory of the ancient Muslim cemetery of Sidi El Mezri, in the city of Monastir, in its western part, the mausoleum of Bourguiba rises, you can go to it along a wide alley, the entrance to the building is decorated with two high minarets with gilded domes, the height of each of them is 25 meters, they can be seen still on the way to construction.
The mausoleum is a beautiful building, decorated with a central golden dome, as well as two green domes located on either side of the main one. Behind the golden dome there is another green one, of a small size. The mosque is decorated with marble, stone carvings and ceramics.
The building of the mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba was built in 1963 for the burial of Bourguiba himself and his family members. This is where his parents are buried. The first wife and other relatives, for their burial, the building was completed twice, in 1978 and 1980. The exposition of the museum, open to the public, contains documents, personal belongings and photographs of Bourguiba.
Bourguiba was a well-known and revered political figure both in the country and abroad, he actively promoted freedom. In the period 1957-1987 he was the first president of the republic. During his reign, many reforms were carried out, both economic and social. The most important of them: the expansion of women's rights and the prohibition of polygamy. Increasing the level of education and the resolution of the divorce procedure, the expansion of private property rights. Bourguiba was removed from Tunisia after the Jasmine Revolution in 1987. He died in April 2000, when he was 96 years old, his body rests in a sarcophagus in the mausoleum building.
When visiting the Monastery, be sure to visit the Ribat Khartem Fortress - once a powerful defensive structure, and now the Museum of Islamic Art and just a religious shrine.
Mausoleum of Habib Bourguiba on the map of Monastir
On the territory of the ancient Muslim cemetery of Sidi El Mezri, in the city of Monastir, in its western part, the mausoleum of Bourguiba rises, you can go to it along a wide alley, the entrance to the building is decorated with two high minarets with gilded domes, the height of each of them is 25 meters, they can be seen still on the way to construction.
The mausoleum is a beautiful building, decorated with a center..." />
Tunisia. Habib Bourguiba, Liberator and Builder
Today, August 3, 2013, the hero of the Republic of Tunisia, Habib Bourguiba, the first president of a free Tunisia, would have turned 110 years old.
We, journalists from Tunisia and Russia, went today to Monastir, his hometown, and participated in the ceremonies organized by the Tunisian public in connection with this date.
The funeral prayer was recited by the imam of Monastir.
The bright memory of the faithful son of the Tunisian people, the Liberator of the country, the Builder of the new Tunisia will forever remain in the hearts of Tunisian patriots.
We publish an excerpt from the new book by Nikolai Sologubovsky “Thawra. Thirteen days that shook Tunisia. …
entry three
1956 Tunisia becomes independent
"Freedom of thought! It is necessary to break its fetters both in the sphere of religion and in politics ... The reformers were against despotic oppression, they fought for the emancipation of the human mind through ijtihad, so that its closed gates would open”
Habib Bourguiba, the first President of Tunisia, at the opening of the National Assembly of the Republic of Tunisia, November 20, 1959
On March 20, 1956, Tunisia achieved independence and the Bourguiba era began.
The role of the individual in history is enormous. For example, the fate of the great Carthaginian commander Hannibal, who ended his life as a great architect. Here is what the historian Polybius said about him: “In what fell to the lot of both the Romans and the Carthaginians, there was the fault and will of one person - Hannibal.”
As for guilt, this is debatable, but as for will, it is rightly said! So the fate of Tunisia is another proof. The will of Bourguiba was a huge force that pulled the country out of the colonial past and directed it into the future. From the leader of the national liberation movement, "Combattant supreme" ("Supreme fighter"), as Bourguiba was respectfully called by the people, turned into the leader of a free nation. Under his leadership, the country lived for three decades.
So, the day of March 20, 1956 became the date of the declaration of independence of Tunisia. Five days later, the first parliamentary elections of the young state took place. As the party that led the fight for liberation, New Dostur received more votes and took the lead in it, and its chairman, Habib Bourguiba, became the head of the first government. But the supreme power still formally belonged to the bey - the aged Mohammed Lamin bin Hussein.
The monarchy was overthrown a year later, when on July 25, 1957, the National Assembly (Parliament) unanimously voted in favor of establishing a republican form of government in the country. Immediately, a delegation of legislators set off from the meeting room towards the Bey's palace in Carthage. It was headed by Bourguiba, who politely and solemnly informed the monarch that from now on he was the same ordinary citizen of the Republic of Tunisia, like everyone else. Bey took it calmly, for granted. Mohammed was put into a car and taken to one of his residences in the suburbs of the capital.
This historical detail was remembered thirty years later, in November 1987, when Bourguiba himself had to hear that he was now “an ordinary citizen of the Republic of Tunisia. Like everyone else...” The two moments of the transfer of power in Tunisia seemed very similar to journalists. Some even announced then: the "Tunisian tradition" of the democratic transfer of the supreme post in the state was born.
Battle for Bizerte
“In front of me is a fighter, a politician and a state leader,
the scope and ambition of which is closely within the framework of his country.
French President de Gaulle on Bourguiba, February 1961
It is difficult for anyone who visits Bizerte in Tunisia to imagine that here, in this provincial city, a shock occurred that remained forever in the memory of Tunisians and entered the history of the struggle for freedom called the "Battle of Bizerte".
Having granted independence to Tunisia in 1956, France, however, did not intend to leave Bizerte, its naval base. Moreover, French troops continued to be in the country. Paris only agreed to negotiate their final departure. Evacuation was undesirable for him, since the French occupied strategically important positions in Tunisia: in neighboring Algeria, France waged war against a people who had risen up in arms for their freedom and rights. And in the fall of 1956, Paris participated in the tripartite Anglo-French-Israeli aggression against independent Egypt, led by the then proud President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Aggression, as you know, was stopped only thanks to the ultimatum of the Soviet Union!
The French generals did not want to lose their positions on Tunisian territory. And yet, under pressure from the Bourguiba government, the former metropolis was forced to make serious concessions - on June 17, 1958, an agreement was signed on the withdrawal of French troops from Tunisia. Only Bizerte remained as a military base, which the French stubbornly refused to evacuate. Moreover, new secret underwater and underground facilities were being built in Bizerte, including for the deployment of nuclear weapons.
On February 13, 1960, the Sahara entered the atomic era. At the Reggan test site, France detonated a nuclear device. Two days later, on February 15, at a closed meeting of the government, Bourguiba said: "Yes, I will get involved in this battle, risking my politics ...". The "Bizerte crisis" begins, which has taken on an international turn. Walked " cold war”, and the world was thrown from one crisis to another: “Middle East”, “Cuban”, “Berlin”, “Bizerte”…
February 1961 Tunisian President Habib Bourguiba arrived in Paris to find a way out of the Bizerte impasse. In the palace of Rambouillet Bourguibe, the same apartments were allocated in which Eisenhower and Khrushchev stayed. In a tete-a-tete conversation on February 29, the President of France, General de Gaulle, told Bourguiba: “We are deploying, as you know, atomic weapons. Our security conditions will change dramatically.” He wanted to make it clear that the issue of Bizerte is a matter of time. By deploying nuclear missiles, France will not need a military base in Bizerte. But Bourguiba insisted, he could not wait. Why? Historians argue...
And then General de Gaulle, during a meeting with Habib Bourguiba in the Rambouillet Palace (Paris), cited Stalin's words spoken to him in 1945: “You know, wars always end. Defeated, winners - it says nothing. Death always wins!
1961 In July, Bourguiba sends different countries delegation to present the Tunisian position on the problem of Bizerte. Secretary of Defense Ladham talks to President Kennedy and realizes that Bizerte means nothing to the United States and that the main problem for America is the blockade of Berlin.
Tunisian Foreign Minister Mokaddem is on his way to Moscow, where he meets with Gromyko, who, as member of the Tunisian delegation Belhodja writes, "confirms his legendary equanimity." Gromyko talks about the "anti-colonial tradition" of the Soviet Union, about Moscow's support for the position of Tunisia, but adds that "the Soviet Union does not want to be a friend only depending on the situation."
August 6 Khrushchev "cordially", as the Tunisians noted, receives the envoys of Bourguiba and assures that the Soviet Union will support Tunisia in its "struggle against the imperialists." Then, according to Belkhodzhi, "he told us about the new crops and their qualities, showing us the ears of wheat lying on his work table."
In Tunisia itself, the situation escalated to the limit. Bourguiba appealed to fellow citizens to rise to the battle for Bizerte. Volunteers gathered from all over the country and Tunisian troops sent to Bizerte began fighting but failed to win a military victory. The French command transferred paratroopers from Algeria, additional units and an aircraft carrier from France, and on July 22, 1961, having suffered heavy losses, the Tunisians were forced to retreat. According to official Tunisian figures, 630 Tunisians were killed and 1,555 were wounded.
And only after the resolute demands of the Bourguiba government, under pressure from the UN and the Soviet Union, we note that an important role was played by Moscow's statement that it was ready to provide Tunisia with "any help"! - In December 1961, Franco-Tunisian negotiations began.
The position of the Soviet Union remained unchanged and uncompromising: Bizerte is an integral part of Tunisia, and the French must transfer the military base into the hands of its rightful owners.
The same firm position - sometimes the international situation forced to go for the supply of Soviet military weapons and send Soviet military volunteer specialists (Algeria, Egypt, Vietnam and other countries) - Moscow took in relation to other dependent and colonial countries, supporting national liberation movements . Soviet policy led to the collapse of the colonial systems of France, England and other countries. That is why the West is still thinking about how to "punish Moscow" and "do away with Russia." That is why Tunisians treat the Soviet Union with such sympathy, they remember the great power and its good deeds and speak with regret about its collapse ...
The result of the French-Tunisian negotiations was the signing of a "package of agreements", according to which, in exchange for the evacuation of the base, France received some economic privileges on the territory of Tunisia. The conflict has been resolved.
On April 10, 1963, President de Gaulle said to Alain Peyreffit about the events in Bizerte: “Of course, we responded to the attack. It's just that this story showed the baseness of French politicians, who considered it their duty to assent to Bourguiba. We started deploying nuclear missiles. We will be able to destroy Bizerte and Moscow at the same time.”
On October 15, 1963, France was forced to begin the evacuation of its troops from Bizerte.
Tunisia - "part of the free world" or "Soviet naval base"?
1968 The world is split into two camps. Most of the Third World countries then waged an anti-imperialist struggle, and in this struggle they were supported by the Soviet Union, whose leaders, of course, pursued their own interests. On the other side of the "barricades" were the Western powers, which tried to preserve their colonies, and the United States, which pursued its own interests and sought to dominate the world, weakening its Western allies and pulling the countries freed from colonial oppression to their side.
Bourguiba then repeatedly stressed that Tunisia was part of the "free world". In 1968, he stated: "We believe that the strength of the United States of America is the element of security that protects the world from some form of totalitarianism."
Historians cite another of his phrases, said at that time: “Today, some people think that Russia can give a lot to the young countries of the Third World. I tell you that this doctrine (communist, author's note) is erroneous and contrary to democratic rules modern world". A number of Arab leaders (Nasser, Gaddafi and others) sharply criticized Bourguiba, accusing him of "pro-American sentiments." But I would like to recall one historical fact. In the 1970s and 1980s, when the Cold War was at its height, Bizerte became, as the Americans said, a "Soviet naval base", which caused great displeasure in the United States. The ships of the Black Sea and Baltic squadrons, performing combat duty in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and playing "cat and mouse" with NATO ships, calmly entered Bizerte. Here in the great dry docks Soviet ships were repaired, the crews rested on the hospitable Tunisian land, gained strength and again went out to carry out combat missions to resist imperialism and preserve peace throughout the world.
Despite constant pressure from NATO countries, Bourguiba was adamant: Soviet ships would always have access to all Tunisian ports. I remember how one morning all of Tunisia was joyfully excited: on the roadstead of the port of Goulette, opposite the presidential palace in Carthage, there was a Soviet nuclear Submarine cetacean shape. She was so huge that all the other big ships looked like little fish. On this day there was a holiday in Tunisia.
Bourguiba was neither "pro-American", nor "pro-Soviet", nor pro-Arab." He was always and in all situations the president of the independent Tunisian Republic!
Tunisia heads for socialism
It was in Bizerte, which became the symbol of the new Tunisia, that the New DUSTUR party held its next congress on October 19-22, 1964. It changed its name, in which the word "socialist" appeared instead of the word "liberal". According to the new charter, the Central Committee became the supreme executive body of the SDP, from among whose members the Politburo was appointed. The National Council in the structure of the party was not abolished, but it was assigned the role of a party conference convened between congresses.
The Bizerte Congress was declared historic and received the epithet "Congress of Destiny". The delegates approved a resolution that defined the main goals of "Dusturov's socialism." It stated that this national doctrine did not mean the extension of state control to all sectors of production, that it recognized private property as its "social function", that socialism "is collectivism, designed to get rid of the selfish principle, the source of anarchy", and "the ultimate goal collective effort is the man". At the same time, the decisions of the congress fixed the strict subordination of party and government bodies, up to the district administration, to the head of state and the chairman of the SDP in one person. Submission from top to bottom after VII Congress the party began to paradoxically resemble the CPSU! The external resemblance of the Social Democratic Party of the mid-sixties with the "leading and guiding force of Soviet society" of the same time was striking. Meanwhile, the SDP did not maintain any ties with the CPSU (unlike the ruling parties of the countries of "socialist orientation"). Some historians explain this paradox as follows: this political system is a form of power of the “party nomenklatura”.
Why did the Tunisians choose the path of socialism? Bourguiba and his associates did not share the classical provisions of Marxism, however, they made an attempt to create a model of "socialism with a Tunisian face" in accordance with national characteristics. Therefore, the concept of the SDP was based on such concepts as "freedom", "human dignity", "liberal democracy", "nationalization", "cooperation" and "trade union rights".
The realization of a sincere desire to raise the country and lead the people out of backwardness and poverty, to feed the people and give them work, Bourguiba saw only on the path of socialist transformations. Having done away with colonialism, Tunisia, like many liberated states, is a phenomenon of that era! – did not want to tie his fate to market capitalism, which gave birth to colonialism and brought so much evil. In addition, Bourguiba and his associates were closely associated with the Western intelligentsia, which then mostly adhered to leftist views. And what's more: a number of European countries provided a successful experience in implementing precisely socialist ideas (for example, Sweden).
Woman's Liberation
“We began the reforms by overcoming the dogmatic notions that ascribed to the Muslim religion a degraded position of women, declaring publicly that such claims are false, and female backwardness goes back to the archaic customs of adat.” Khabib Bourguiba
Among the reforms that glorified Bourguiba and brought him international fame, in the first place both in time of implementation and in importance are radical measures aimed at fundamentally changing the position of women in society. We are talking about a code of family law and a number of other regulations governing civil status and combined into the law "On Personal Status" of August 13, 1956. This code was introduced - to replace the old Sharia norms - five months after the country's independence was declared. According to the Tunisian historian Mohammed-Hedy Sherif, this revolutionary law, which abruptly changed the traditional way of life and laid the foundation for female emancipation with the prohibition of polygamy, turned out to be a profound social and legal reform with “irreversible consequences” and, according to the same historian, “the main business of life” Bourguiba himself.
“Remember the old conditions of life of a Tunisian woman. She spent her whole life locked up, as everyone was afraid for her virtue. She has been locked up since childhood, hidden from male gaze and not exposed to any risk. Her safety was fully guaranteed, but the woman's level of development was very low. She was deprived of any sense of responsibility, consciousness of social significance, she was not engaged in any intellectual activity. In social terms, our society was half paralyzed, for many years this sad sight was in front of our eyes.
So spoke President Bourguiba before the promulgation of the Code of Personal Status of Citizens in August 1956. This document proclaimed the creation of a new type of family based on equality, solidarity and mutual responsibility of spouses.
"Jihad" for the economy
Partly, the Tunisian choice in favor of socialism is also explained by the fact that with the dominance of foreigners in the economy of Tunisia: the French, Italians, Germans, there were practically no native, national entrepreneurs in Tunisia. There were also almost no funds, capitals for the development of the country, and what little that was available had to be concentrated in one hand, the hands of the state. Therefore, the country's leadership had to develop a program of state management of the economy and begin its implementation in the 60s.
We note in passing that Tunisia developed according to plan: since 1961, long-term economic planning has been used. Three-year, four-year, and five-year plans were consistently "made up".
Much was done during that period: colonial landownership was destroyed in the countryside, the peasants received land in private ownership, and agriculture itself was modernized. The construction of dams, canals and water pipelines began. Tunisians have begun to implement their "GOELRO plan" - the electrification of the entire country. New state-owned enterprises began operating in industry, providing jobs for tens of thousands of people. In health care, medical care was significantly improved, and epidemics were put an end to.
The results of 1981 were positive: the five-year plan (1977-1981) was successfully completed, the average annual GDP growth was 6.6%, and 213,000 jobs were created. GDP increased to 4.1 billion Tunisian dinars (in 1980 - 3.5), investment in the economy - up to 1.225 (in 1980 - 0.99), the share of private capital in the economy - up to 43% (in 1980 g. - 32%).
"Study, study and study!"
In 1956, 84% of the population was illiterate. The Bourguiba government began, first of all, to eradicate illiteracy and create a system of public education. Throughout the country, the president’s phrase was heard: “I will put everyone at a desk!” Appropriations for education were sharply increased: up to 15 percent state budget. The management of public education was placed under state control, and tuition fees were abolished in public primary and secondary schools.
In the mid 70s. educational reforms were carried out with the aim of Arabizing education in primary school and the teaching of the humanities in Arabic was introduced in secondary schools. However, in implementing these reforms, Tunisians used the best of the French education system, and French occupies an essential place in the educational process.
With the assistance of the Soviet Union, the Tunisian University was built, and the first teachers in it were Soviet and Bulgarian specialists. Many thousands of Tunisians learned professions in the Soviet Union itself and other socialist states. So from a country downtrodden and illiterate during the French protectorate, Tunisia became the most educated country in Africa. Tunisians who received higher education in Moscow and Kyiv, Odessa and Leningrad, Baku and Tbilisi, fondly remember their years of study at Alma Mater, in the Soviet Union.
Need for change
But good intentions do not always bring the desired results. The reforms, in the form they were intended, did not take place. In the industry, from the mid-60s, the curtailment of industrialization programs began - there was not enough money. And these processes took place against the background of the growth of Tunisian private capital, which was more interested in liberal rather than socialist reforms.
Already at the end of the 60s, large Tunisian landowners, merchants and manufacturers appeared who were closely associated with foreign capital and acted mainly in the role of "subcontractors" - executors of orders from large foreign firms. Their business was booming, bringing good profits. And the state had neither the strength nor the means to ensure both economic growth and a tolerable standard of living for the working people.
Property stratification increased dramatically: in 1972, 13 percent of Tunisians (let's call them "new Tunisians") received 54 percent of the national income, and 55 percent of the population lived in poverty. The state of internal stability that Bourguiba was so proud of was over.
Unemployment began to rise in the early 1970s. The aggravation of social conflicts led to the growth of discontent among the masses.
January 1978 was the date of the first social explosion. On January 26, 1978, the largest trade union center, the General Tunisian Union of Labor (VTOT), announced a general strike, which grew into mass demonstrations of workers. The authorities used force.
At the same time, it became clear that the system of power needed to be revised - neither entrepreneurs nor workers wanted to put up with the president's authoritarianism. There was no freedom of political debate in the country, there was strict censorship of the press, and dissent was suppressed. Bourguiba himself understood the need for change.
In the middle of spring 1980, the prime minister was replaced - this post was taken by Mohammed Mzali, a supporter of liberalization. In April 1981, at an extraordinary congress of the SDP, it was decided to "ensure the reconciliation of socialism with democracy" and allow for political pluralism. The leaders of the VTOT, who were arrested in January 1978, and other political prisoners were released from prison. Oppositionists were allowed to run for parliament. On July 19, 1981, after twenty years of prohibition, the Tunisian Communist Party (TKP) received the right to legal activity. On the other hand, the extremist Muslim opposition, in particular the Islamic Tendency Movement, became more active. In September of this year, this "Movement" suffered a blow: leaders and activists were arrested and sentenced to various prison terms, more than 40 people in total.
(to be continued)