How the English language works. Plotkin V.Ya

This book is not an English textbook. It has a different task - to show and explain to those who teach and study it, the main features of the internal structure of this language and its most significant differences from Russian, in order to help them develop an optimal strategy for teaching and learning on this basis and consciously choose a methodology suitable for them.
The focus on the basic, essential distinguishes this book from textbooks, where the language is described more fully, in more detail, more precisely. The degree of completeness and detail of the description depends, of course, on the level of education - elementary or advanced, but at all levels it is customary to strive for the highest accuracy of description. However, if the main, most important features of the language are brought to the fore, then some of its aspects will obviously recede into the background as secondary, less essential both for its structure and for mastering it. How is the degree of materiality of one or another feature of the language determined?
Language acquisition, whether it is the infant's natural introduction to the first (native) language, the acquisition of a new language under the guidance of a teacher, or in everyday direct communication with its native speakers, passes through two stages, at which different goals are achieved.
The goal of the initial stage is limited - it is necessary to achieve an elementary understanding with native speakers, to begin to communicate with them, that is, to understand at least a little their speech and send them simple messages. To do this, you need to learn how to pronounce and distinguish by ear the sounds of the language, build and perceive simple sentences master some vocabulary. However, a limited goal allows you to minimize the amount of material learned at this stage, and reduce the requirements for the quality of its assimilation. So, out of tens of thousands of words in the vocabulary of the language, you can get by with several hundred. You don't have to use all grammatical constructions, but most of them should be learned, although some deviations in their use (broken speech) are tolerable. The sounds of the language must be pronounced and recognized to the last, but rather noticeable deviations from the standard in their pronunciation are allowed, which are considered speech defects in a child, and an accent in a foreigner.
Having successfully passed the initial stage, a child who masters his native language or learns new language an adult has overcome the main barrier and joined the corresponding language community - English-speaking, Russian-speaking, etc. But he is not yet a full member of it, and achieving full rights is the goal of the second stage. To do this, it is necessary to master the language, as they say, to perfection, that is, to use it freely, without restrictions, differing as little as possible in your speech from those for whom it is native. It is necessary, therefore, to get rid of the accent and broken speech, to bring the number of actively used words to several thousand.
The goals of the two stages are different not only in content, but also in the criteria for their achievement. The initial goal is evaluated quite clearly on a two-point scale - "yes" or "no". And the second goal is the peak, the path to which is both in the native and in foreign language never ends, and achievements on it are evaluated on a multi-point, smooth scale.
The relationship between the two levels is different depending on whether the teacher directs the acquisition of the language, or whether it is acquired directly among native speakers. In the latter case, the initial stage cannot be extended, since the baby or foreigner needs to join the language community as soon as possible. And then the foundation laid on it allows you to move on to the second stage - usually a slow, long process of language improvement. There are no clear milestones and boundaries here, and the achieved individual levels of language acquisition form a continuous spectrum from the minimum acquired at the initial stage to the full and free use of all the riches of the language. It should be noted that for some adults, the acquisition of a new language after completing its initial stage practically stops for various reasons, especially due to insufficient personal motivation or old age.
Figuratively speaking, at the initial stage of arrival.

In this post, a brief overview of how an English fireplace works. Well, such as in the films about Sherlock Holmes

"Brick ovens and fireplaces are very popular in the most different countries. This is a fairly convenient and unpretentious device that can be used even in the presence of central heating, as a source of additional heat. Its design is incredibly simple and convenient, so anyone with at least small building skills can do the masonry on their own. The English fireplace looks quite elegant and fits perfectly into any interior: both in the apartment and in the country.

Compared to a stove, the efficiency of a fireplace is much less, and is only 15-20 percent. But what a pleasure it is to sit near an open fire, contemplating the dancing tongues of fire. The fireplace has an additional useful feature: due to the large amount of air driven through the firebox, it ventilates the room remarkably. A room with this English hearth will never smell of stale, stale air; she is not afraid of dampness and mold in the house. When choosing a suitable location for placement, it should be borne in mind that it does not favor drafts.

It is better to place it away from the doors in the living room, they also like to use fireplaces in country houses. What elements does an English fireplace consist of? The base of the portal and the hearth itself should be made in the form of a platform. It is laid out from high-quality red brick or from a special refractory brick placed on edge.

For bonding, a cement mortar containing sifted fine asbestos is used. , and on the sides of it by 0.3 meters. The seams have a thickness of 0.5-0.8 cm. The hearth should have a depth of 0.41-0.51 m. To increase the heat transfer process, the side walls of the device should have a slope of 45 to 60 ° to the rear surface. The latter is laid out vertically at a distance of 0.36 m from the hearth, and then with a break, forming an inclined mirror. Often, to enhance the effect of convection from a burning flame, it is finished with polished steel sheets. This break should rise above the portal by 15-20 cm, ending with a view. Its cross section is 1.3 times larger than that of the chimney. Then comes the smoke box. Soot will accumulate in it when cleaning the chimney. Through a special cleaning in the side or rear wall of the furnace, it is removed. In the smoke collector, in its upper part, it is necessary to put a damper or rotary damper. What are the requirements for its device? For high-quality operation of the fireplace, the ratio between the cross section of the chimney (transverse) and the portal opening must be maintained, which is 1 to 8 or 1 to 9 for unplastered heating systems, and 1 to 12 or 1 to 10 for plastered ones. Meanwhile, the dimensions of the portal should be related to the total area of ​​the heated room as 1 to 50. The portal should not be more than twice the height more depth hearth.
The process of plastering the internal surfaces of the smoke box and the hearth is extremely laborious, but with its help, draft is very noticeably improved and heat transfer is enhanced. Also, to enhance heat transfer on the sides of the hearth, in the body of the fireplace itself, special chambers are arranged. Room air in their cavities is heated, and is discharged through the upper vents into the room. Thus, it makes room for new portions drawn through the lower vents. The portal lintel is usually made of brick or reinforced concrete. English-style fireplace: do I need a foundation? This is determined individually, for each individual case, and depends on the weight of the masonry and the design of the floor, for frame house often make a separate foundation for the fireplace ..

In general, all the rules for the construction of furnaces must be followed. To make a fireplace in English with a standard straight chimney, you need to prepare: about 300 pieces of red brick (or a little less), about 120 refractory bricks, 7 or 8 buckets of plain clay, about 2 buckets of special refractory clay, about 14 buckets of sand, cement bucket, one grate, one valve and one cleaning. Do-it-yourself wall-mounted fireplace Such a fireplace, which has a chimney located at an angle, is placed near an existing partition or a solid brick wall. If they are made of wood, they require reliable fireproof insulation - a brick wall that is as high as the ceiling of the room.

First, the tree is upholstered with roofing iron or tin, then covered with a felt layer soaked in a clay solution. It is advisable to reinforce brickwork with rigid steel wire, fastened to the wall with large nails, every 2-3 rows of bricks. It is possible to make an insulating wall in such a way that it repeats the shape of the fireplace itself and the chimney, extending 30 cm beyond them to the sides. The furnace, together with the wall, is a rather heavy structure, which requires a foundation. For its manufacture, brick battle or stones are required, for their laying cement mortar. A double layer of roofing material is lined slightly below the floor level as a waterproofing. A cement-sand screed is made at the level of a clean floor.

“I take my work very seriously. Part of the work that lies with
me now, has been in my office for many years, and there is not a single
speck. I am very proud of my work. Sometimes I take it off the shelf and sweep it away
dust off it. I, like no one else, care about its safety.

(Jerome K. Jerome "Three men in a boat, not counting the dog")

The so-called British humor is perceived as humor only outside the UK, for its inhabitants it is rather a state of mind or part of a way of life. An important detail - many associate British humor with the era of tuxedos and top hats, but in fact, it originated much earlier. Which is obvious, since any national trait is not formed overnight, only the environment and conditions change.

Speaking briefly about the history of humor in British literature, they began to joke from the very beginning of its development. For example, at Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales, subtle intelligent irony, vulgar unambiguous vulgarity, and a good-natured joke coexist on the pages. The book was incredibly popular in the Middle Ages, and still its humor remains relevant, since in fact the person and his weaknesses have not changed. Went down the same path swift, ridiculing in "Gulliver's Travels" all the same human vices. However, his satire often becomes really dark, as the author wanted to make the reader think about the evil that a person often personifies. Artworks Jane Austen are also imbued with subtle humor: the author laughs at the stupid social order, and endows his heroes with hilarious features.

The 19th century was the heyday of satirical weeklies such as the popular Fun and Punch, which cost next to nothing and whose content was purely entertainment. At the turn of the century, well-known O. Henry, Jerome K. Jerome, P. G. Wodehouse, who gave us an inexhaustible amount of laughter and incredibly colorful characters. One of the key British humorous works of the 20th century can be called the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series. Douglas Adams where the usual sarcasm is combined with a futuristic setting. Those who want to study history in detail, rejoice! Project Gutenberg has released a two-volume essay by Alfred Lestrange (volume 1, volume 2) into the public domain. It is not exhaustive, since it was published in 1877, but it is very detailed and interesting.

The main features of typical British jokes and anecdotes:

• abundance of polite designs
• brevity - a good joke is always concise
• cold-blooded attitude even to the most absurd situations

One of distinguishing features British humor is considered to be its intellectuality and sophistication. It is not intended to cause an attack of hysterical laughter, but rather an approving grin. This is self-irony over one's own national (and class, since it is most often about the aristocracy) features. The British tend to joke in self-deprecating ways and make fun of their own (and others') shortcomings. And although there are almost no taboo topics, it is very important that the joke be subtle, otherwise it will be considered simply rude and tasteless. For this reason, at one time, British humor was called flat, because often the translation could not convey the fullness of meanings, and the essence of the joke often eluded the unaccustomed reader.

“Tell me, Jeeves, have you always been like this, or did it come unexpectedly?”
- What, Sir?
- Your mind. Gray matter. Were you an outstanding child?
- My mother thought I was smart, Sir.
- It doesn't mean anything. Mine thought so too

P.G. Wodehouse "Jeeves and Wooster"

British humorous literature is a triumph of absurdity and sarcasm. Although it was said above that the classic joke is not designed for a violent reaction from the audience, when it comes to books, there is sometimes such an abundance of absurdities that you want to cry with laughter. For example, the episode about spending the night outdoors in "Three Men in a Boat, Not Counting the Dog." A very important feature of British humorous literature is the image of the character. As a rule, his character has several very pronounced features, which throughout the story are the main engines of plot development. These are all the main characters of Woodhouse's works: Jeeves, Worcester, Ukridge, Psmith. They are so bright that it is absolutely impossible to imagine that they can have a quiet life without adventures and adventures.

Why does the reader love British humor so much? Because it's hard to find someone who doesn't like a good joke. And also because it is about everyone and everyone, because the characters are not afraid to be stupid, funny and absurd. They are not just not afraid, they don’t even think about it, just remaining themselves. It is this sincerity that attracts, and at the same time the opportunity to learn from the mistakes of others, because not all the adventures that fall to the lot of the heroes of the books, you want to get yourself.

• J. Chaucer "The Canterbury Tales"
• J. Swift "Gulliver's Travels"
• J. Osten "Lady Susan"
• P.G. Woodhouse "Love with Chickens"
• P.G. Wodehouse "The Wooster Family Honor", "Keep it up, Jeeves!", "Mating Season"
• P.G. Woodhouse "Psmith the Journalist"
• Jerome K. Jerome "Three men in a boat, not counting the dog"
• O. Henry "Stories"
• D. Adams "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy"

• "The Fry and Laurie Show"
• "Black's Bookstore"
• "Monty Python"