What are service parts of speech examples. Service parts of speech
Most Russian anglists divide parts of speech into significant and auxiliary parts in accordance with the tradition of Russian linguistics. Significant units include units that have a full lexical meaning, that is, those that name objects and concepts (desk, table, love, friendship), actions (bring, kill), signs of objects (big, clever), signs of action (quickly, sharply ). Having a full lexical meaning, significant parts of speech occupy one or another syntactic position in a sentence and thus function as certain members of the sentence (subject, predicate, definition, object, circumstance). Among the significant parts of speech today there are: numeral, noun, adjective, verb, pronoun, adverb and modal words. By grammatical meaning, significant parts of speech are distributed into:
1. parts of speech that name objects, phenomena or their signs (noun, adj., num., verb, adverb).
2. parts of speech indicating objects as qualities or quantity, without naming them (pronouns).
3. parts of speech expressing the speaker's attitude to the content of the statement, his feelings and will (modal words, interjections).
Consider the grammatical properties of some significant parts of speech.
Noun
Noun in modern English language characterized by the following features:
1. The categorical meaning of objectivity. This means that all nouns in the language function in a similar way. Thus, the names of states and properties (activity, freedom, movement) are syntactically equal to nouns denoting objects (table, folk).
2. The presence of a grammatical category of number.
3. The presence of certain word-forming morphemes typical of the entire class of nouns. Of these, the following are most characteristic: -er, -ist, -ess, -ness, -ion, ation, -ty, -ment, -ance, -ant.
4. Various syntactic functions.
A noun can be a subject, an object, a nominal part of a compound predicate, a definition.
E.g. The child is playing.
Wendy found the money.
Sally became a lady.
David has bought a leather coat.
The peculiarity of English nouns is that they can act as a prepositive definition in inflected and invariable form.
E.g. a leather coat, a stone wall, John's house.
Adjective
The adjective as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
1. the grammatical meaning of the property of an object or its attribute, which has a certain conditional stability:
E.g. a long road, a clever child, a nice boy.
2. a certain set of derivational morphemes:
Al, -ial, -ful, -less, -y.
3. For the name of an adjective, only one form of inflection is characteristic - degrees of comparison.
E.g. big-bigger-the biggest
Difficult – more difficult – the most difficult
Note that not all adjectives are able to convey the degree of intensity of a particular property. This ability is absent from relative adjectives in their direct meaning.
E.g. the house is more wooden than that one.
4. The main function of adjectives is to be a definition, both prepositive and postpositive. More characteristic is prepositive functioning.
E.g. a clever boy, a capable student
BUT: secretary general
Another important function of adjectives is the function of the predicative member, that is, the nominal part of the predicate.
E.g. the weather is fine and warm.
Verb
A verb is a part of speech that expresses the grammatical meaning of an action that takes place in time. The grammatical meaning of an action is understood broadly: it is not only an activity in the proper sense of the word, but also a state and an indication that an object exists.
E.g. He wrote a letter.
He sits listening to the music.
A table is a piece of furniture.
The inflectional system of the verb is richer and more diverse than that of other parts of speech. It includes both the synthetic method (addition of formants to the stem) and the analytical forms of tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, number.
The word-formation structure of the verb is rather poor: affixation is represented by a very small number of suffixes: -ate, -en, -fy, -ize.
Compound verbs formed by conversion are common, as well as verbs formed by reversion, that is, by shortening the final part of nouns.
E.g. broadcast, whitewash - whitewash.
Tiptoe - to walk on tiptoe.
Television® televise.
In a sentence, the verb always acts as a predicate. It rarely acts as a definition:
E.g. I would be a student.
A would be a student.
3. Service parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles
Significant parts of speech are contrasted with official ones. Service parts of speech are a rather complex and contradictory phenomenon. On the one hand, these are completely independent words that occupy certain positions in a sentence, and on the other hand, these are words with an incomplete lexical meaning that exist, as it were, for other words, performing mainly grammatical functions (for example, a preposition performs the function of indicating various relationships between significant words, combinations and sentences).
Service parts of speech are formed by the so-called line elements, which include, first of all, conjunctions and prepositions. Their own individual semantics are so generalized that it is difficult to interpret in a dictionary: the definition here is usually replaced by an indication of belonging to a particular class with an explanation of the functions.
Pretext- this is a function word that is not able to function syntactically on its own, and, of course, be a member of a sentence. It serves to express subordination between important words.
Unions- these are linking words that, connecting individual words, phrases, parts complex sentence or independent sentences, indicate a relationship of either equality or dependence. Depending on the relations transmitted by the unions, they are divided into subordinating (that, while, which, because, as, for ....) and coordinating (and, nor, neither ... nor, or, either ...).
Particles- these are morphologically invariable words expressing the subjective attitude of the speaker to the statement as a whole or some part of it.
E.g. I have only met him twice.
Poirot felt almost certain that it was false.
I quite agree; the qeen nearly died.
1. General characteristics of service words in Russian.
2. Classification of service parts of speech.
General characteristics of service words in Russian
The opposition of significance - service in the system of parts of speech of the Russian language has been taking place since the time of M.V. Lomonosov. V.V. Vinogradov in the book “Russian language: (grammatical doctrine of the word)” called significant words parts of speech, service words - particles of speech, describing the latter as a separate structural-semantic class. “Parts are called classes of such words that usually do not have a completely independent real or material meaning, but mainly introduce additional shades into the meanings of other words, groups of words, sentences, or serve to express various kinds of grammatical ( and consequently , both logical and expressive) relations. The lexical meanings of these words coincide with their grammatical, logical or expressive-stylistic functions. Therefore, the semantic volume of these particles is very wide, their lexical and grammatical meanings are very mobile, they are in the power of syntactic use" [Vinogradov, 1972, p. 520].
Functional words are deprived of the ability to designate objects, signs of objects, processes, signs of other signs, etc. Significant words do this, as you know, in two ways: nominative (nominal, when a certain meaning, one or more is assigned to a sound complex) and pronominal ( pronominal, when the meaning of the word is not assigned to the sound complex, it is variable and depends on the context and situation).
In this regard, function words do not enter into phrases, but are themselves a formal means of expressing the connection of words (cf .: near the house- a preposition cannot be an independent component of a phrase, it is only a formal means of expressing the connection of words).
Service words are not independent members of the sentence.
As a rule, service words do not change (except for connectives), do not have grammatical categories of gender, number, case, etc., and are not divided into morphemes. Most of the service words do not have independent stress and join the significant word in the preposition (proclitic: in front of the house) or postposition (enclitic: did you read), forming with it a large phonetic word.
Functional words do not have their own word-formation apparatus, therefore, they are replenished due to diachronic transformation - the transition from significant parts of speech.
It is noted that after service words, pauses are not possible, written in a comma, colon or dash, but, as an exception, pauses are possible, decorated with ellipsis: Cucumbers from ... the Arctic.
Classification of service parts of speech
In the linguistic literature (for example, in the works of V.N. Sidorov and others), attempts are known in the system of auxiliary vocabulary to distinguish groups of words expressing syntactic formal meanings (prepositions, conjunctions, connectives) and non-syntactic ones (actual particles). Prepositions, conjunctions and connectives express various kinds of relationships (temporal, spatial, causal, etc.) transmitted as part of a phrase, sentence. Own particles can form some grammatical meanings ( Have you read this book?– Particle whether together with intonation serves to express a question), but much more often they introduce various kinds of semantic shades into the statement: restrictive, intensifying, etc., for example: Even a wordblouse declared incorrect. Women were only allowed to wearblouses (K. Chuk.). Listening to the sounds of the night, he thought that life was passing by, but nothing had really been done yet.(K.P.). The town of Spas-Klepiki is already very small, quiet(K.P.).
Therefore, some linguists talk about the grammaticality of prepositions, conjunctions, connectives and the semantics of particles proper, which, as shown above, is not entirely correct.
According to the grammatical and communicative purpose, official vocabulary is divided into prepositions, conjunctions, proper particles and bundles. The latter are the most controversial. They will be discussed in more detail in the relevant sections.
1. All words of the Russian language can be divided into groups called parts of speech.
Together with syntax, morphology constitutes a branch of the science of language called grammar.
2. Each part of speech has signs that can be grouped into three groups:
3. All parts of speech are divided into two groups - independent (significant) and official. Interjections occupy a special position in the system of parts of speech.
4. Independent (significant) parts of speech include words that name objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions to independent words, and in a sentence, significant words are members of a sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Noun | who? what? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. |
| 2 | Verb | what to do? what to do? | Saw, saw, know, learn. |
| 3 | Adjective | which? whose? | Good, blue, mother's, door. |
| 4 | Numeral | How many? which the? | Five, five, fifth. |
| 5 | Adverb | as? when? where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. |
| 6 | Pronoun | who? which? How many? as? and etc. | I, he, such, mine, so much, so, there. |
| 7 | Participle | which? (what does he do? what did he do? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. |
| 8 | gerund | as? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding |
Notes.
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position in the system of parts of speech of participles and participles. Some researchers attribute them to independent parts of speech, others consider them to be special forms of the verb. Participle and participle really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and verb forms. In this manual, we adhere to the point of view reflected, for example, in the textbook: Babaitseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades. M., 2001.
2) In linguistics, there is no single point of view on the composition of such a part of speech as numerals. In particular, in "academic grammar" it is customary to consider ordinal numbers as a special category of adjectives. However, school tradition classifies them as numerals. We will adhere to this position in this manual.
3) In different manuals, the composition of pronouns is characterized differently. In particular, the words there, there, nowhere and others in some school textbooks are classified as adverbs, in others - as pronouns. In this manual, we consider such words as pronouns, adhering to the point of view reflected in the "academic grammar" and in the textbook: Babaitseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades. M., 2001.
5. Service parts of speech- these are words that do not name either objects, or actions, or signs, but express only the relationship between them.
It is impossible to put a question to official words.
Service words are not members of the sentence.
Functional words serve independent words, helping them to connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
The official parts of speech in Russian include the following:
pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
union (and, but, but, however, because, in order to, if);
particle (would, whether, same, not, even, precisely, only).
6. occupy a special position among the parts of speech.
Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words, and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use such interjections as ah, ooh, ooh; to express feelings of cold - brr, to express fear or pain - oh etc.
7. As noted, some words in Russian can change, others cannot.
To immutable include all service parts of speech, interjections, as well as such significant parts of speech as:
adverbs ( forward, always);
gerunds ( leaving, leaving, taking).
Also some of them don't change:
nouns ( coat, taxi, blinds);
adjectives ( beige coat, electric blue suit);
pronouns ( then, there).
by using graduation;
Wed: sister - sisters; read - read.
by using endings and prepositions;
Sister - to the sister, with the sister, with the sister.
by using auxiliary words.
Along with independent parts of speech (nouns, adjectives), we use additional ones. In linguistic science, they are called service. Without them, our speech would lose all meaning and emotionality. What part of speech in Russian is called official? This is a lexical unit that has no independent meaning.
Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - this is a list of words that have one common name for service parts of speech. The table will help to determine their unique features and compare with independent parts of speech (PR).
Note! The criterion of "functionality" remains debatable in linguistics. Some linguists (L. Shcherba, F. Fortunatov) define grammatical functions for functional words: an expression of the connection between grammatical units.
Prepositions and conjunctions
A preposition is a part of speech that is used to express different types relations:
- spatial - objects and phenomena in relation to their placement in space (on the road, on the street, under the table, in front of the girl);
- temporary indicate the duration of the action or a specific time (at 5 pm, last week);
- causal is used to indicate reasons (because of this, because he said).
There are several classifications of prepositions. According to the method of motivation, non-derivative prepositions are distinguished (the most ancient ones are in, without, before, from, to, which consist of one short word) and derivatives, which were formed with the help of simple units. They are divided into three groups: adverbial, verbal and denominative.
Prepositions
According to the structure, simple (from one word), complex (from two simple words) and compound, which are made up of several words, are distinguished.
A union is a word whose main function is to link homogeneous independent members, parts of a sentence, words. There are writing and subordinating conjunctions, the difference between them is presented in the table:
| writing | Subordinating | |
| Functions | Connect equal parts of the assumption (independent of each other) and | Connect the dependent parts of the sentence. |
| Classification | connecting (used to formulate enumerations); adversative (form semantic shades of opposition, used to describe differences); separating (alternating); explanatory; comparative (like ... so, not only, ... but also). | explanatory - they are used when it is necessary to indicate the reason in the dependent part of the sentence ("what", "to"); temporary - indicate the time ("when", "as soon as"); causal - used to form causal relationships ("in view of", "because"); conditional (“if”, “if”, “if”); comparative (“like”, “as if”). |
Functions and characteristics of particles
Particles in Russian are short words that are used to create sentences with additional emotional overtones. There are such types of semantic shades that are created with the help of particles:
- amplification (exactly);
- thinning (only);
- indication (come on);
- restriction (even);
- negation (not).
The second classification divides particles by value into three groups:
- shaping. They are used to form moods of verbs: the conditional is formed using the particle “would”: “I would dream about it, but I can’t.” To form an imperative mood, particles “come on”, “come on” are used: “Let her not be silent, let's tell her the whole truth”;
- negative - form forms of verbs that negate the action ("not" and "neither");
- interrogative: “is it”, “really”, “whether”;
Separate modal particles. They formulate the subjective opinion and attitude to what was said of the one who speaks. Modal particles include exclamatory particles (“how”, “what”, “for”), those that express doubts (“hardly”), having the meaning of limitation (“everything”), indicating an object or direction (“here”, "out"), short replicas ("yes", "no").
Useful video: what are service parts of speech in Russian?
Status of interjections
Interjections are a class of words that many linguists treat differently. The function of interjections is the expression of emotions, volitional reactions, onomatopoeia.
There are three views on the definition of interjection:
- as an atypical syntactic class that is not included in the classification of parts of speech;
- they enter the system of parts of speech as a separate class, occupy a separate place in it;
- are in the system of service parts of speech and are on a par with their other types.
Supporters of the classical school theory of language adhere to the latter view.
Interjections include words expressing: feelings and emotions (“Oh!”, “Wow!”), orders (“Shoo!”, “Shoo!”), obscene exclamations, sounds that people have as a reaction to external stimuli (“Oh”, “Ay”, “Ah”).
Interjections can often be replaced by full-fledged phrases and sentences: they perform the simplification function that is characteristic of spoken language.
- "shh" - "be quiet";
- "ugh" - "what a disgusting", "I don't like it";
- "OK!" - "great", "good".
Also to the class of these words belong lexemes that are used to denote the imitation of the sounds of natural phenomena (“drip-drip”, “bul-bul”), animals (“meow-meow”, “crow”).
They are formed from other parts of speech:
- nouns (“fathers!”, “God!”);
- verbs ("Look at you!");
- pronouns;