The value of relief in human economic activity. Mountains

Fold mountains

Folded mountains

mountains, the uplifting of which occurred as a result of the crushing of rock layers into folds. Main The mechanism for the formation of folded mountains is the horizontal compression of the layered strata, although vertical movements of deeper layers can also take part in this. Collapse into folds is possible if the rocks subjected to compressive forces are sufficiently plastic, which is characteristic of either young, recently formed sedimentary rocks, or strongly heated rocks saturated with liquid and gaseous inclusions. In its pure form, folded mountains are quite rare - as a rule, the formation of folds is accompanied by the appearance of faults. If displacements along faults make a significant contribution to the formation of mountainous relief, such mountains are called blocky-folded. An example of folded mountains is the mountains of the Swiss Jura in the Alps, the Zagros mountain system in Iran, some ranges in the Appalachians (North America).

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what "folded mountains" are in other dictionaries:

folded mountains- Mountains resulting from the collapse of sedimentary rocks into folds ... Geography Dictionary

Mountains, the main orographic elements of which at the early stages of development correspond to folded dislocations. This year are relatively rare (for example, the mountains of Dagestan, the Central Kopetdag, the French-Swiss Jura). See also… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia

1. in Greek mythology Ora, in Greek mythology, the goddess of nature and the seasons. Usually there were three of them, and they personified spring, summer and winter. They were portrayed as young and beautiful maidens, accompanied by nymphs and graces (charites). According to… … Collier Encyclopedia

A set of closely spaced individual mountains, mountain ranges, mountain spurs, ridges, highlands, as well as canyons, valleys, depressions separating them, occupying a certain territory, more or less clearly separated from the surrounding plains. By… … Geographic Encyclopedia

Raznov. text. mountains (see Mountains), the main orographic elements of which are formed by plicative dislocations with the subordinate role of disjunctive ones. Distinguish: 1) G. with. epigeosynclinal, reflecting folded structures in the relief (Caucasus, Alps); 2) ... Geological Encyclopedia

Formed by blocks of the earth's crust, lifted and moved relative to each other. There are mountains formed by: a) blocks composed of horizontally occurring settlements, and b) previously folded structures, later peneplanated and ... ... Geological Encyclopedia

This is the name given to significant elevations of the earth's surface, more or less steeply rising above plains or highlands (plateaus). G. sometimes rise separately, for the most part hills (volcanoes), but much more often they unite into mountain ranges and ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Not to be confused with mountains as isolated sharp rises of rock, as well as peaks in mountainous countries. Mountains are highly dissected parts of the land, significantly, by 500 meters or more, elevated above the adjacent plains. From the plains of the mountain ... ... Wikipedia

Caucasus Mountains ... Wikipedia

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Geologists call folded-block or simply blocky mountains orographic structures that formed and rose in the most ancient geological epochs, but much later rejuvenated and split into separate blocks or blocks during the repeated uplift of the territory. Most mountain systems on the planet are folded-blocky, because folded structures are rare. During the rejuvenation of ancient mountains, the formation of folds is necessarily accompanied by the appearance of faults and the formation of block formations.

Folded-block mountain systems appear in the majority on the site of ancient mountainous countries already destroyed by erosion. With the activation of tectonic processes at the sites of the most ancient orographic structures that have become peneplains, new uplifts of the earth's crust and vertical displacements of individual blocky structures that have arisen during faults occur. That is why the mountain ranges that have risen above the surrounding territory have little dissection and steep slopes.

In the structure of fold-block structures, experts distinguish horst-like uplifts, when a separate block of the earth's crust rises above the surrounding territory to a considerable height. Striking examples of host-like mountains are the Vosges and Besalica, the Sierra Nevada, the Black Forest and the Harz. Another element of blocky mountains are graben-like depressions in the earth's crust, when a separate block descends to a considerable depth relative to the surrounding territory. Most often, grabens in the relief of blocky mountains are deep, steep, often.

A characteristic feature of fold-block orographic structures are flat tops that appeared as a result of faults in the earth's crust, extensive watersheds and wide flat-bottomed intermountain valleys. These structures in the relief are formed with the loss of plasticity of ancient rocks, their inability to crumple into folds, the appearance of deep tectonic faults during the rejuvenation and revival of mountain systems.

Ural

The lithospheric folds lying at the base of the Urals were formed in the redistribution of the Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal region into the Paleozoic Hercynian folding. The Paleozoic structures in the Urals were formed in the Late Cambrian in a geosynclinal basin, which was gradually filled with continental crust and subsequently subjected to strong compression during strong volcanism.

Later, for a long time during the Mesozoic and Paleogene in the Urals, processes of strong destruction and alignment of the Hercynian structures took place. Gradually, the mountain system turned into an ancient peneplain or a very hilly upland. In the Neogene and Quaternary period, active mountain-building processes and intensive rejuvenation of the territory began in the Urals. The old mountains rose again and split into separate blocks, which rose and fell to different heights. The uneven uplift of lithospheric blocks led to great differences in the external shape and height of individual ridges.

Altai

A complex folded system within the Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal region was formed by Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks, strongly dislocated and crumpled into folds in the Caledonian and Hercynian times of tectogenesis. In subsequent geological periods after the Paleozoic, the mountainous country was severely destroyed and practically turned into a denudation plain or an ancient peneplain.

In the Neogene and the subsequent Quaternary geological period, Altai, which had been badly destroyed by that time, again underwent uplift and rejuvenation. With the general tectonic uplift of the territory, the ancient rocks of the mountainous country that lost their plasticity were split into huge blocks under the influence of deep tectonic faults. This process was accompanied by powerful continental glaciation and strong erosional dismemberment of the mountainous country.

Sayans

A typical example of folded-blocky mountains are the Sayan Mountains, which formed partly within the Ural-Mongolian folded system into the most ancient Baikal folding, partly during the Caledonian orogeny. After a long intensive mountain building in the Sayan Mountains, a period of relative tectonic calm began, which continued in the Mesozoic and Paleogene. The uplifted mountains were severely destroyed and turned into a vast denudation plain, often called peneplain by geologists.

But in the Neogene and later in the Quaternary, they experienced again the strongest rejuvenating tectonic movements. This process was accompanied by widespread outpouring of basalts and the formation of numerous volcanoes. The territory has split into separate tectonic blocks, constantly shifting relative to others. This process proceeded with glaciation of high horst-shaped mountain peaks and strong erosional dissection of the entire territory.

Tien Shan

The powerful and geologically heterogeneous mountain system of the Tien Shan can serve as a remarkable example of an extensive blocky structure. It was formed on the territory of the Ural-Mongolian geosyncline in the northern part in the Caledonian orogenic era, in the southern part in the Hercynian time. These parts, different in geology and geomorphology, are separated by a deep tectonic seam, which experts call the “Nikolaev line”.

After an active and prolonged mountain-building process, the Tien Shan was destroyed for a long time and turned into a strongly dissected denudation plain. At the end of the Paleogene in the Oligocene, a powerful mountain-building process began again throughout the Tien Shan, splitting the mountainous country into separate blocks and creating a modern high-mountain relief. Powerful tectonic movements led to the formation of stepped landforms, the development of deep erosional river valleys and the appearance of continental glaciation.

Chersky Ridge

An example of a fold-block structure of a mountain system is the ridge of I. D. Chersky. It was formed and significantly rose in the Mesozoic, when new tectonic structures were attached to the northeastern part of the Siberian Platform in a powerful process of mountain building. Then, for a long time at the border of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic period, the ridge was in a stable state, destroyed and actively peneplanated.

During the epoch of the latest Alpine orogeny, the ridge underwent a powerful rejuvenation and widespread uplift, splitting into separate block blocks. Some blocks immediately rose into horst-shaped elevated mountain peaks, others sank into graben-like depressions in intermountain valleys. Therefore, the relief of the ridge is strongly dissected, it alternates between high and mid-mountain ridges covered with continental glaciation, extensive intermountain valleys, remnant stone ridges and stepped landforms.

Stanovoy Ridge

In Transbaikalia, a typical example of the blocky structure of the territory is the Stanovoy Ridge. It was formed back in the Precambrian from Archean and Early Proterozoic rocks cut through by intrusions of the most ancient porphyrites and coarse-grained multi-colored granites in the south of the Siberian Platform. Archean and Proterozoic rocks, the oldest on the planet, are covered here by sediments of the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.

In the long period of denudation and erosional destruction that followed, the territory of the ridge leveled off and strongly peneplanated. In the Pliocene-Quaternary geological time, the territory of the ridge again rose, split into separate tectonic blocks, large ruptures, normal faults and young intrusions appeared here.

Appalachians

The ancient Caledonian-Hercynian folded-blocky structure of the Appalachians in the Paleozoic underwent the strongest mountain-building tectonic movements. During intense volcanic processes, mountains rose with high peaks and crumpled into large folds. The subsequent Late Paleozoic prolonged erosional denudation smoothed the mountain peaks, exposed ancient folds, and severely dissected the relief.

In the Meso-Cenozoic rejuvenating slow uplift of the Appalachian territory, the appearance of the modern mid-mountain relief gradually took shape, in which the so-called “relief inversion” is observed, where there is no clear correspondence of its forms to the most ancient folded structures. The amplitude of tectonic uplifts and the movement of blocks formed during deep faults were different in certain parts of the mountainous country.

The modern appearance of the mountains is very heterogeneous, high mountain ranges coexist here with vast and flat-bottomed intermountain valleys, erosion-remnant forms, deep gorges and foothill plateaus. In areas that have undergone continental glaciation, here in the relief there are terminal moraine ridges, river valleys with a trough profile, high-mountain glacial lakes and many waterfalls on rivers flowing along hanging valleys.

Sierra Nevada

The formation of the American California high "snow-capped mountains" of the Sierra Nevada began in the Jurassic "Nevada orogeny" typical of folded mountains by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate under the North American one. The deep magma of the melting oceanic plate created extensive granite intrusions in the cores of the future mountain range. Later, the Sierra Nevada began a period of prolonged relative calm and great destruction.

In the Oligocene and the subsequent Neogene, a new period of orogeny began in the Sierra Nevada mountain system, noticeably uplifting the territory, splitting it into blocks, carving V-shaped deep canyons with glaciers, exposing the famous local "batholiths" located on intrusive bodies in the depths of the earth's crust. The growth of the Sierra Nevada is happening now, it causes large earthquakes up to 8 points here.

Geologists call folded mountains tectonic and orographic structures formed in geosynclinal regions by the appearance of special folded deformations with a small number of faults. Layers of sedimentary rocks under the influence of the internal forces of the earth are crushed into large folds with a general uplift of the region. A characteristic feature of the regions of folded mountains is the large extent of mountain ranges for hundreds and thousands of kilometers. Fold mountains are found on every continent and are often the highest mountain ranges in the world.

The process of orogeny of the folded mountain system is quite complex. High folded mountains appeared most often on the outskirts of the continents in place of deep oceanic depressions. Such regions are called folded geosynclinal troughs at the boundaries of large lithospheric plates. When the plates of the lithosphere collide, the territory rises and the layers of sedimentary rocks are crushed into large folds.

The main mechanism for the formation of a folded mountain system is the horizontal compression of layers in the rock mass with a slight vertical uplift or lowering of the territory. Jamming during compression of rocks into orographic folds is possible if they have a certain plasticity. These properties are typical for newly formed rocks, for hot lava rocks, they are saturated with gases and liquid mineral inclusions.

Himalayas

The highest folded mountain system in the world is the Himalayas. They formed at the boundary of the Eurasian and Indo-Australian lithospheric plates in a region with increased seismic and volcanic activity. The Indo-Australian Plate is moving towards the Eurasian Plate at a constant rate of 4.9 cm per year. In the area of ​​​​the collision of these plates, the highest of the planet's mountain systems rose.

The active phase of the uplift of the Himalayas took place in the Tertiary geological period during the modern Alpine orogeny. The primary slopes and the axial zone of the ridge are composed of strong phyllites, granites and gneisses, crumpled into folds, the foothills are mainly coarse-grained sandstones and conglomerates. The young Himalayan mountains consist of separate arc ridges with increasing heights towards the north. The process of growth of the Himalayas with a height of 8,848 m continues to this day.

Alps

A typical folded orographic structure is the European Alps with high pointed peaks characteristic of these areas and many forms of mountain-glacial relief. At the base of the Alpine mountain system there are rocks formed in all geological periods, but the main orogeny took place here in the latest Cenozoic folding.

The mountains appeared as a result of powerful tectonic movements on the border of the large lithospheric plates of the Eurasian and. The African plate is moving towards the Eurasian plate at a speed of 1.9 cm per year, this creates tension in the rock layers and a general uplift of the territory. The Alps are composed of ancient gneisses, mica schists and quartzites, crumpled into large folds.

Pyrenees

The folded system of the Pyrenees rose on the site of the oldest Mediterranean geosynclinal belt in the Alpine Tertiary orogeny. It arose in the marine epicontinental basin with frequent changes in its depth. Therefore, a variable composition of facies is observed here, deposits are often interrupted, and many geological horizons are absent.

The Pyrenees rose during the intensive interaction of the large lithospheric plates of the African and Eurasian, moving towards at a speed of 1.9 cm per year. During their interaction in the Alpine time, high mountain peaks up to 3.5 thousand meters rose here. The cores of the most inaccessible mountain system in Europe are composed of crystalline rocks, the surface is marine deposits of limestone and dolomites with glacial landforms and karst.

Caucasus

The typical folded mountain systems that formed in the Alpine-Himalayan geosynclinal belt include. They were formed during the tectonic collision of the Large Eurasian and small Arabian lithospheric plates moving towards each other at a speed of 1.9 cm per year. This movement creates a powerful compression of rock layers and increased seismicity of the territory.

The orographic structure of the Caucasus has gone through a complex path of its formation, which began in the pre-Hercynian time, continued in the Hercynian stage and the Alpine orogeny. In the pre-Hercynian time in the Riphean and Lower Paleozoic, under the conditions of the geosynclinal regime, the region was subjected to powerful folding and numerous granite intrusions.

The formation of the territory of the Caucasus continued in the Hercynian era, when sublatitudinal geosynclinal troughs appeared along the entire system, followed by uplift of the territory. Later, in the Permian, the Caucasian mountains collapsed to the state of peneplain, and in the Triassic, a whole system of narrow deep grabens appeared here, where volcanic and detrital rocks accumulated.

At the Alpine stage in the Jura, a powerful uplift of the region and compression of the rocks that formed the folds took place. This process was accompanied by powerful terrestrial and underwater volcanism, the cones of high Caucasian volcanoes rose. Later, in the Neogene, the territory was subjected to intense erosion processes, and forms of mature relief, extensive intermountain valleys, leveling surfaces, and cuestas were formed. The Quaternary is characterized by the most powerful uplift, the amplitude of which ranged from 1.5 to 2.5 thousand m.

Western coastal ranges of the Cordillera

The formation of the high mountain belt of the Andes is influenced by the movement towards two lithospheric plates, the Nazca oceanic plate and the South American one. The Nazca Plate is leaking under the mainland at a rate of 6 cm per year, and the South American Plate is moving westward at a rate of 2.3 cm per year. This mutual movement of the plates towards each other creates a huge stress on the rocks at the edge of the continental plate, which is manifested by active volcanism, folding and powerful earthquakes.

A characteristic feature of the Andean mountain system is the widespread presence of wide glacial valleys, troughs, plowed in the Triassic. Over millions of years, these ancient troughs have been filled with thick layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. High coastal mountain ranges consist of granite and granitoid rocks of Cretaceous age. Intermountain basins and marginal troughs were formed in the Paleogene and Neogene times.

Zagros

The largest fold system in Iran is the young mountainous country of Zagros. Mountain-building processes here, as in the entire Mediterranean geosynclinal belt, began in the Miocene, and continue to this day. Zagros was formed at the point of collision of the Arabian and Eurasian lithospheric plates. The Arabian Plate is moving towards the Eurasian Plate at a rate of 4.9 cm per year.

Hindu Kush

The high folded mountains of the Hindu Kush arose as a result of the strong tectonic pressure of the Indo-Australian lithospheric plate on the powerful continental Eurasian plate. The mountainous alpine system of the Hindu Kush is relatively young and continues to form and rise. The plates of the lithosphere move towards each other at a speed of 4.9 cm per year, which causes the rise of high mountain peaks and domes, the formation of large folded structures.

Kopetdag

The young Alpine Neogene and Quaternary folded mountain system of the Kopetdag rose as a result of the tectonic interaction of the small Arabian lithospheric plate and the giant Eurasian plate. They move towards each other at a speed of 4.9 cm per year, which creates tension in the rocks and the widespread modern uplift of the territory. Periods of tectonic activity during the Alpine orogeny here alternated with quiet periods, when the territory was leveled and smoothed out, then the tectonic cycle was repeated again.

With the appearance of signs of a new tectonic cycle, the territory rose again, new mountain peaks grew, and short deep intermountain basins appeared. In a mountainous country, parallel ridges and adjacent spaces dissected by erosion are clearly visible. With gentle southern slopes, the northern ones are almost sheer cliffs over deep gorges. The foothills of the mountains were formed, according to experts in the early Quaternary time, the core of the ranges in the Pliocene and Miocene.

Strong destructive earthquakes testify to the ongoing tectonic mobility in the Kopetdag region and the growth of mountains. The ancient periods of tectonic calm and leveling of the territory created well-marked tiers of relief here. Residual relict plateaus here contrast sharply with young steep incisions, synclinal ridges, asymmetric cuesta ridges, and table plateaus.

Mountains occupy 24% of the land surface. They also exist at the bottom of the oceans. 10% of the representatives of the human race, who live in the mountains, are slightly puzzled by the reasons for the appearance of such "giants". Moreover, when the next earthquake occurs. Naturally, if the mountains are young, prone to tectonism, volcanism and seismism.

How mountains are formed - all versions

Each people living in the mountains created their own legend about mountain building. The popular version is giant people, frozen or punished for their deeds by higher powers. From time to time they come to life, showing their bad temper

Fortunately, today we have a complete list of reasons for the formation of mountains, so the fear of this form of relief can be left only to those who violate safety precautions during trekking, mountain hiking, climbing. Let's explore together the question of how mountains are actually "born". Consider that the genesis of the mountain system has become a key classifier of this landform.

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Interesting facts about mountains

Types of mountain building

Fold mountains

The first option - folded mountains, became the result of the work of the internal forces of the Earth. The discussed relief form is obtained in the case of convergence (collision) of two lithospheric plates. The most striking example is the "cutting" of the Indo-Australian plate into the Eurasian one, as a result of which the earth's crust was crumpled into folds, forming the Himalayas.

As a bonus, we can recall the Alps, resulting from the interaction of the African-Arabian platform with the same Eurasian one.

Himalayas - folded mountains

Or the Cordillera, resulting from the "collision" of the North American platform on a plate lying under the water masses of the Pacific Ocean. The "design" of folded mountains is several rows of mountain ranges running parallel to one another. With a developed fantasy or during an airplane flight, you can “see” how the earth's crust was crumpled into folds, forming modern mountain systems.

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Why is it cold in the mountains, because warm air rises?

Blocky-folded mountains

Another option for the formation of mountains is two-phase tectonism. In the first phase, we get typical folded mountains. The process is familiar - described above. But! The mountain range can be long. And the earth's crust is everywhere divided into blocks. Which can move up and down, regardless of the overall movement of the platform. Therefore, in the second phase of this type of mountain building, a long, long mountain range is broken into fragments. One begins to slowly move up, the other - down, the third - also down, but at a different speed.

folded mountains, the uplifting of which occurred as a result of the crushing of rock layers into folds. Main The mechanism for the formation of folded mountains is the horizontal compression of the layered strata, although vertical movements of deeper layers can also take part in this. Collapse into folds is possible if the rocks subjected to compressive forces are sufficiently plastic, which is characteristic of either young, recently formed sedimentary rocks, or strongly heated rocks saturated with liquid and gaseous inclusions. In its pure form, folded mountains are quite rare - as a rule, the formation of folds is accompanied by the appearance of faults. If displacements along faults make a significant contribution to the formation of a mountainous relief, such mountains are called blocky-folded. An example of folded mountains is the mountains of the Swiss Jura in the Alps, the Zagros mountain system in Iran, some ranges in the Appalachians (North America).

Watch value Fold Mountains in other dictionaries

Mountains Mn.- 1. A chain or group of elevations (usually tapering upwards), rising sharply above the surrounding area; mountainous terrain.
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova

Diamond Mountains- in the DPRK, see Kumgangsan.

Andalusian Mountains- (Cordillera Betica) - a mountain system in the south of Spain. Length approx. 630 km, height up to 3478 m (Mulasen). Deciduous forests and Mediterranean shrubs.
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Annam Mountains- in Vietnam and Laos; see Truong Son.
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Arakan Mountains- (Rakhine) - in the southwest of Manyama. Length approx. 800 km, height up to 3053 m (Victoria). Parallel meridional ridges with sharp peaks and steep slopes. Evergreens (on ........
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Assam Mountains- see Shillong.
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Balkan Mountains- the same as Stara Planina.
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Byrranga Mountains- on the Taimyr Peninsula. Length 1100 km. Altitude up to 1146 m. ​​Glaciers (total area approx. 30 km2). Stony-arctic tundra.
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Vernadsky Mountains- ice mountains in Vost. Antarctica, in the eastern part of Queen Maud Land. Length approx. 400 km, the height of St. 1600 m above sea level. Ice cover over the mountains up to 1000 m thick.........
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East Australian Mountains- see Big Dividing Range.
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East Iranian Mountains- within the Iranian Highlands, in the east of Iran. Length approx. 1000 km. Altitude up to 4042 m (Teftan volcano). Isolated arrays with flat tops. Mountain steppes and semi-deserts.
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east korean mountains- in the east of the Korean Peninsula, in Korea. Altitude up to 1915 m (Chirisan). Broad-leaved and coniferous forests. In the composition of the East Korean Mountains - Mount Kumgansan.
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East Sakhalin Mountains- (Eastern Ridge) - in the eastern part of Sakhalin Island. Length approx. 280 km. Altitude up to 1609 m (Lopatina). They consist of several echelon-shaped ridges, strongly dissected by valleys. Seismicity up to 7 points.
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Gamburtseva Gory- ice mountains in Vost. Antarctica, in the region of the Soviet Plateau. Length up to 1300 km. Altitude up to 3390 m. Ice cover with a thickness of 600 m or more. Discovered by a Soviet expedition in 1958..........
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Blue Mountains- (Blue Mountains) - part of the Great Dividing Range in Australia. Plateau-like, strongly dissected mountains up to 1360 m high. Eucalyptus forests and savannahs. Blue Mountains National Park.
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Mountains- the same as mountainous countries, mountain systems, vast areas of the earth's surface, raised several thousand meters above sea level and characterized by sharp fluctuations in altitude .........
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Grampian Mountains- (Grampians) - in the north of Great Britain. Length approx. 250km. Height up to 1343 m (Ben Nevis, the highest in the country). Peatlands, heathlands, meadows.
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Guberlinskiye Mountains- to the south. Ural. Length approx. 70 km. Height 300-350 m. Slopes steppe vegetation. Deposits of iron, copper and nickel ore.
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dragon mountains- in southeast Africa, part of the Great Escarpment. Height up to 3482 m. On the eastern slopes - tropical forests, in the west - savannas overgrown with shrubs. Above - mountain meadows, stone placers.
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Western Pontic Mountains- part of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, west of the river. Kyzyl-Irmak. Length 475 km. Altitude up to 2600 m.
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West Sakhalin Mountains- (Western ridge) - in the southwestern part of about. Sakhalin. Length 650 km, height up to 1330 m. They consist of several parallel ridges (the main watershed ridge is Kamyshovy), separated by ........
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Western Romanian Mountains- (Apuseni) (Muntii Apuseni) - part of the Carpathians in the west of Romania. They include Bihor (height up to 1848 m), Metalich and other massifs. Beech, oak and coniferous forests, meadows.
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Iberian Mountains- (Cordillera Iberica) - in the northeast of Spain, to the south of the reject. Ebro. Length 440 km. Altitude up to 2313 m (Moncayo). Mediterranean shrubs, forests in the northwest.
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Elias of the Holy Mountain- (Saint Elias Mountains) - in the Cordillera system of North America, in Canada and Alaska. Altitude up to 6050 m (Logan). Glaciers (including reaching the sea - Malaspina).
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