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Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829 direction. Russian-Turkish wars - briefly

Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829 direction. Russian-Turkish wars - briefly

He moved with the Russian army to Crimea. With a frontal attack, he captured the fortifications of Perekop, went deep into the peninsula, took Khazleiv (Evpatoria), destroyed the khan's capital Bakhchisarai and Akmechet (Simferopol). However, the Crimean Khan, constantly avoiding decisive battles with the Russians, managed to save his army from extermination. At the end of summer, Minikh returned from Crimea to Ukraine. In the same year, General Leontyev, acting against the Turks on the other side, took Kinburn (a fortress near the mouth of the Dnieper), and Lassi - Azov.

Russian-Turkish War 1735-1739. Map

In the spring of 1737, Minich moved to Ochakov, a fortress that covered the exits to the Black Sea from the Southern Bug and the Dnieper. Due to his inept actions, the capture of Ochakov cost the Russian troops quite large losses (although they were still many times smaller than the Turkish ones). Even more soldiers and Cossacks (up to 16 thousand) died due to unsanitary conditions: the German Minich cared little about the health and nutrition of Russian soldiers. Due to the huge loss of soldiers, Minikh stopped the 1737 campaign immediately after the capture of Ochakov. General Lassi, operating in 1737 east of Minikh, broke into the Crimea and disbanded detachments throughout the peninsula, which destroyed up to 1000 Tatar villages.

Due to the fault of Minich, the military campaign of 1738 ended in vain: the Russian army, aiming at Moldova, did not dare to cross the Dniester, since there was a large Turkish army on the other side of the river.

In March 1739, Minikh crossed the Dniester at the head of the Russian army. Due to his mediocrity, he immediately found himself in an almost hopeless environment near the village of Stavuchany. But thanks to the heroism of the soldiers who unexpectedly attacked the enemy in a semi-impassable place, Battle of Stavuchany(the first clash between Russians and Turks in an open field) ended in a brilliant victory. The huge troops of the Sultan and the Crimean Khan fled in panic, and Minikh, taking advantage of this, took the strong fortress of Khotin located nearby.

In September 1739, the Russian army entered the Principality of Moldova. Minikh forced his boyars to sign an agreement on the transition of Moldova to Russian citizenship. But at the very crest of success, news came that the Russian allies, the Austrians, were ending the war against the Turks. Having learned about this, Empress Anna Ioannovna also decided to graduate from it. The Russian-Turkish War of 1735-1739 ended with the Peace of Belgrade (1739).

Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774 – briefly

This Russian-Turkish war began in the winter of 1768-69. Golitsyn's Russian army crossed the Dniester, took the Khotyn fortress and entered Iasi. Almost all of Moldavia swore allegiance to Catherine II.

The young empress and her favorites, the Orlov brothers, made bold plans, intending to expel Muslims from the Balkan Peninsula during the Russian-Turkish war. The Orlovs proposed sending out agents to raise the Balkan Christians in a general uprising against the Turks and send Russian squadrons to the Aegean Sea to support it.

In the summer of 1769, the flotillas of Spiridov and Elphinston sailed from Kronstadt to the Mediterranean. Arriving on the shores of Greece, they instigated a rebellion against the Turks in Morea (Peloponnese), but it did not reach the strength that Catherine II had hoped for and was soon suppressed. However, the Russian admirals soon won a stunning naval victory. Having attacked the Turkish fleet, they drove it into Chesme Bay (Asia Minor) and completely destroyed it, sending incendiary fire ships at the crowded enemy ships (Battle of Chesme, June 1770). By the end of 1770, the Russian squadron captured up to 20 islands of the Aegean archipelago.

Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774. Map

In the land theater of war, Rumyantsev's Russian army, operating in Moldova, in the summer of 1770 completely defeated the Turkish forces in the battles of Larga and Cahul. These victories gave the whole of Wallachia into the hands of the Russians with powerful Ottoman strongholds along the left bank of the Danube (Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman, Brailov, Bucharest). There were no Turkish troops left north of the Danube.

In 1771, the army of V. Dolgoruky, having defeated the horde of Khan Selim-Girey at Perekop, occupied the entire Crimea, placed garrisons in its main fortresses and placed Sahib-Girey, who swore allegiance to the Russian Empress, on the Khan’s throne. The squadron of Orlov and Spiridov in 1771 made long raids from the Aegean Sea to the shores of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, then subject to the Turks. The successes of the Russian armies were so brilliant that Catherine II hoped, as a result of this war, to finally annex Crimea and ensure independence from the Turks for Moldavia and Wallachia, which were supposed to come under Russian influence.

But the Western European Franco-Austrian bloc, hostile to the Russians, began to counteract this, and Russia’s formal ally, the Prussian king Frederick II the Great, behaved treacherously. Catherine II was prevented from taking advantage of the brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 by Russia's simultaneous involvement in the Polish unrest. Frightening Austria with Russia, and Russia with Austria, Frederick II put forward a project according to which Catherine II was asked to give up extensive conquests in the south in exchange for compensation from Polish lands. In the face of intense Western pressure, the Russian Empress had to accept this plan. It came true in the form of the First Partition of Poland (1772).

Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky

The Ottoman Sultan, however, wanted to get out of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768 without any losses at all and did not agree to recognize not only the annexation of Crimea to Russia, but even its independence. Peace negotiations between Turkey and Russia in Focsani (July-August 1772) and Bucharest (late 1772 - early 1773) ended in vain, and Catherine II ordered Rumyantsev to invade with an army beyond the Danube. In 1773, Rumyantsev made two trips across this river, and in the spring of 1774 - a third. Due to the small size of his army (part of the Russian forces at that time had to be withdrawn from the Turkish front to fight against Pugachev), Rumyantsev did not achieve anything outstanding in 1773. But in 1774 A.V. Suvorov with an 8,000-strong corps completely defeated 40,000 Turks at Kozludzha. By this he brought such horror to the enemy that when the Russians headed towards the strong fortress of Shumle, the Turks rushed to flee from there in panic.

The Sultan then hastened to resume peace negotiations and signed the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty, which ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791 – briefly

Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812 – briefly

For more information about it, see the article.

The brutal suppression of the Greek uprising of the 1820s by the Turks provoked a response from a number of European powers. Russia, which shared the same faith with the Orthodox Greeks, spoke out most energetically; England and France joined in, not without hesitation. In October 1827, the combined Anglo-Russian-French fleet completely defeated Ibrahim's Egyptian squadron, which was helping the Turkish Sultan suppress the rebellious Greece, in the battle of Navarino (near the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese).

The military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires in 1828 arose as a result of the fact that after the Battle of Navarino in October 1827, the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire) closed the Bosporus Strait, violating the Ackerman Convention. The Akkerman Convention is an agreement between Russia and Turkey, concluded on October 7, 1826 in Akkerman (now the city of Belgorod-Dnestrovsky). Türkiye recognized the border along the Danube and the transition to Russia of Sukhum, Redut-Kale and Anakria (Georgia). She undertook to pay all claims of Russian citizens within a year and a half, to provide Russian citizens with the right to unhindered trade throughout Turkey, and to Russian merchant ships the right to free navigation in Turkish waters and along the Danube. The autonomy of the Danube principalities and Serbia was guaranteed; the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia were to be appointed from local boyars and could not be removed without the consent of Russia.

But if we consider this conflict in a broader context, it must be said that this war was caused by the fact that the Greek people began to fight for independence from the Ottoman Empire (back in 1821), and France and England began to help the Greeks. Russia at this time pursued a policy of non-intervention, although it was in an alliance with France and England. After the death of Alexander I and the accession of Nicholas I to the throne, Russia changed its attitude towards the Greek problem, but at the same time, disagreements began between France, England and Russia on the issue of dividing the Ottoman Empire (dividing the skin of an unkilled bear). Porta immediately announced that it was free from agreements with Russia. Russian ships were prohibited from entering the Bosphorus, and Türkiye intended to transfer the war with Russia to Persia.

The Porte moved its capital to Adrianople and strengthened the Danube fortresses. Nicholas I at this time declared war on the Porte, and she declared war on Russia.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 was a military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires that began in April 1828 due to the fact that the Porte closed the Bosporus Strait after the Battle of Navarino (October 1827) in violation of the Ackerman Convention. In a broader context, this war was a consequence of the struggle between the great powers caused by the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a series of campaigns in Bulgaria, the Caucasus and northeast Anatolia, after which the Porte sued for peace. Most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta passed to Russia.

The Ottoman Empire recognized Russian supremacy over Georgia and parts of modern Armenia.

On September 14, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was signed between the two parties, as a result of which most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta passed to Russia.

The Ottoman Empire recognized the transfer to Russia of Georgia, Imereti, Mingrelia, Guria, as well as the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates (transferred by Iran under the Peace of Turkmanchay).

Türkiye reaffirmed its obligations under the Akkerman Convention of 1826 to respect the autonomy of Serbia.

Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in the Danube principalities during the reforms.

Türkiye also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece.

Türkiye was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829

The history of the Russian-Turkish wars goes back to the 17th century. At first these were wars between the Moscow state and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Until the 18th century, the Crimean Khanate always sided with the Ottoman Empire. On the Russian side, the main reason for the wars was the desire to gain access to the Black Sea, and later to establish a foothold in the Caucasus.

Causes of the war

The military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires in 1828 arose as a result of the fact that after the Battle of Navarino in October 1827, the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire) closed the Bosporus Strait, violating the Ackerman Convention. Ackerman Convention- an agreement between Russia and Turkey, concluded on October 7, 1826 in Akkerman (now the city of Belgorod-Dnestrovsky). Türkiye recognized the border along the Danube and the transition to Russia of Sukhum, Redut-Kale and Anakria (Georgia). She undertook to pay all claims of Russian citizens within a year and a half, to provide Russian citizens with the right to unhindered trade throughout Turkey, and to Russian merchant ships the right to free navigation in Turkish waters and along the Danube. The autonomy of the Danube principalities and Serbia was guaranteed; the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia were to be appointed from local boyars and could not be removed without the consent of Russia.

The Porte moved its capital to Adrianople and strengthened the Danube fortresses. Nicholas I at this time declared war on the Porte, and she declared war on Russia.

Progress of the war in 1828

J. Doe "Portrait of I. Paskevich"

On May 7, 1828, the Russian army under the command of P.Kh. Wittgenstein (95 thousand) and the Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I.F. Paskevich (25 thousand) crossed the Prut, occupied the Danube principalities and crossed the Danube on June 9. One after another, Isakcha, Machin and Brailov capitulated. At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa took place.

Then the advance of Russian troops slowed down. Only on October 11 they were able to take Varna, but the siege of Shumla and Silistria ended in failure. At the same time, Turkish attempts to invade Wallachia were neutralized by the Russian victory at Bailesti (modern Bailesti). In the Caucasus in the summer of 1828, I.F. Paskevich’s corps launched a decisive offensive: in June he captured Kars, in July Akhalkalaki, in August Akhaltsikhe and Bayazet; The entire Bayazeti pashalik (province of the Ottoman Empire) was occupied. In November, two Russian squadrons blocked the Dardanelles.

Assault on the Kars fortress

Y. Sukhodolsky "Assault on the Kars Fortress"

The day of June 23, 1828 occupies a special place in the history of the Russian-Turkish war. An impregnable fortress fell before a small army, which had seen formidable conquerors many times at its walls, but never within its walls.
The siege of the fortress lasted for three days. And Kars bowed before the victors with the inaccessible tops of its towers. Here's how it happened.
By the morning of June 23, Russian troops stood under the fortress, they were under the general command of Major General Korolkov and Lieutenant General Prince Vadbolsky, Major General Muravyov, the Erivan Carabineer Regiment and the reserve Georgian Grenadier Regiment and a combined cavalry brigade.
With the first rays of the sun, cannonade began from all Russian batteries into the Turkish camp. In response to this, a strong fire began from all tiers of the citadel. Sixteen Russian guns could hardly respond to this cannonade. “It’s unlikely that during my entire service I have been in a stronger fire than on this day,” said Muravyov, a participant in Borodin, Leipzig and Paris. “If such firing had continued for another two hours, the battery would have been razed to the ground.”
When the batteries of the Turkish camp fell silent, part of the enemy infantry descended from the fortified heights and began close combat. A hand-to-hand fight ensued.
The Russian soldiers were led by Miklashevsky and Labintsev, their courage knew no limits. Having defeated the enemy, the soldiers began to pursue those fleeing up the mountain towards the camp. It was very dangerous, but the officers could not stop the Russian soldiers. “Stop, brothers! Stop! - they shouted. “No further!” This is just a fake attack!”
“It’s absolutely impossible, your honor,” one of the soldiers answered as he ran, “this is not the first time we have had to deal with an inchrist. Until you kick him in the teeth, he can’t understand this fake attack.”

Progress of the war in 1829

In the spring of 1829, the Turks tried to take revenge and recapture Varna, but on June 11, the new Russian commander-in-chief I.I. Dibich defeated the twice superior forces of the Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha near the village. Kulevcha. Silistria surrendered on June 30, at the beginning of July the Russians crossed the Balkans, captured Burgas and Aidos (modern Aytos), defeated the Turks near Slivno (modern Sliven) and entered the Maritsa Valley. On August 20, Adrianople capitulated. In the Caucasus, I.F. Paskevich in March and June 1829 repelled the attempts of the Turks to return Kars, Bayazet and Guria, on July 8 he captured Erzurum, captured the entire Erzurum pashalik and went to Trabzon.

J. Doe "Portrait of I. Dibich"

Numerous defeats forced Sultan Mahmud II to enter into negotiations. But the Turks delayed them in every possible way, hoping for Austrian intervention. Then I.I. Dibich moved to Constantinople. The ambassadors of the Western powers recommended that Sultan Mahmud accept Russian conditions. The Peace of Adrianople was concluded on September 14 : The Ottoman Empire ceded to Russia the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from the mouth of the Kuban to Fort St. Nicholas, the Akhaltsikhe pashalyk and the islands in the Danube Delta, granted autonomy to Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia, recognized the independence of Greece; The Bosporus and Dardanelles were opened to ships of all countries; Russia received the right to free trade throughout the Ottoman Empire.

The feat of the brig "Mercury"

I. Aivazovsky "The brig "Mercury" is attacked by two Turkish ships"

"Mercury"- 18-gun military brig of the Russian fleet. It was launched on May 19, 1820. In May 1829, during the Russian-Turkish War, the brig under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Alexander Ivanovich Kazarsky won an unequal battle with two Turkish battleships, for which he was awarded the stern St. George's flag.

At the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829, the Black Sea Fleet continued a tight blockade of the Bosphorus. Detachments of Russian ships were constantly on duty at the entrance to the strait in order to promptly detect any attempt by the Turkish fleet to go to sea. In May 1829, a detachment of ships under the command of Lieutenant-Commander P. Ya. Sakhnovsky was assigned to cruise at the entrance to the Bosphorus. The detachment included the 44-gun frigate “Standart”, the 20-gun brig “Orpheus” and the 18-gun brig “Mercury” under the command of Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky. The ships left Sizopol on May 12 and headed for the Bosphorus.

Early in the morning of May 14, a Turkish squadron appeared on the horizon, sailing from the shores of Anatolia (the southern coast of the Black Sea) to the Bosporus. “Mercury” began to drift, and the frigate “Standart” and the brig “Orpheus” approached the enemy to determine the composition of the Turkish squadron. They counted 18 ships, among which were 6 battleships and 2 frigates. The Turks discovered the Russian ships and gave chase. Sakhnovsky ordered each ship to escape the pursuit independently. “Standart” and “Orpheus” set all sails and quickly disappeared over the horizon. “Mercury” also left with full sail, but two Turkish ships began to catch up with it. These were 110-gun and 74-gun ships. The rest of the Turkish ships drifted, watching as the admirals hunted for the small Russian brig.

Around two o'clock in the afternoon the wind died down and the pursuit stopped. Kazarsky ordered to move on the oars. But half an hour later the wind rose again and the chase resumed. Soon the Turks opened fire with running guns (guns designed to fire straight ahead). Kazarsky invited the officers to a military council. The situation was extremely difficult. The two Turkish ships were 10 times larger than the Mercury in the number of guns, and 30 times larger in the weight of the broadside. Lieutenant of the Corps of Naval Navigators I.P. Prokofiev offered to fight. The council unanimously decided to fight to the last extremity, and then fall with one of the Turkish ships and blow up both ships. Encouraged by this decision of the officers, Kazarsky appealed to the sailors not to disgrace the honor of St. Andrew's flag. All as one declared that they would be faithful to their duty and oath to the end.

The team quickly prepared for battle. Kazarsky was already an experienced naval officer. For his distinction during the capture of Anapa, he was prematurely promoted to captain-lieutenant, and then again committed a heroic act during the siege of Varna, for which he was awarded a golden saber with the inscription “For bravery!” and was appointed commander of the brig Mercury. Like a real naval officer, he knew perfectly well the strengths and weaknesses of his ship. It was strong and had good seaworthiness, but due to its shallow draft it was slow-moving. In this situation, only the maneuver and accuracy of the gunners could save him.

For half an hour, using oars and sails, the Mercury avoided the enemy's broadsides. But then the Turks managed to get around it on both sides, and each of the Turkish ships fired two broadside salvos at the brig. A hail of cannonballs, cannonballs (two cannonballs connected by a chain or rod, used to disable the rigging of a ship) and firebrands (incendiary shells) rained down on him. After this, the Turks offered to surrender and drift. The brig responded with a volley of carronades (a short cast-iron cannon) and friendly fire from rifles. Kazarsky was wounded in the head, but continued to lead the battle. He understood perfectly well that his main task was to deprive the Turkish ships of their speed, and ordered the gunners to aim at the rigging and spars of the Turkish ships.

I. Aivazovsky "The brig "Mercury" after the victory over the Turkish ships is moving towards the Russian squadron"

This tactic of the Russian brig was fully justified: several cannonballs from the Mercury damaged the rigging and mainmast of one ship, and it was out of action. And the other continued the attacks with even greater persistence. For an hour he hit the brig with hard longitudinal salvos. Then Kazarsky decided on a desperate maneuver. The brig abruptly changed course and approached the Turkish ship. Panic began on the Turkish ship: the Turks decided that the Russians would blow up both ships. Having approached to the shortest distance, Kazarsky allowed his gunners to hit the rigging of the Turkish ship with maximum accuracy. The risk was very great, because the Turks could now shoot point-blank at the Mercury from their huge guns. But our gunners destroyed several yards, and the sails began to fall to the deck; the Turkish ship could not maneuver. "Mercury" fired another salvo at it and began to leave. And “Standard” and “Orpheus” arrived in Sizopol on the same day with their flags at half-mast. They reported the appearance of the Turkish fleet and the death of the Mercury. The fleet commander, Vice Admiral A.S. Greig, ordered to immediately go to sea to cut off the Turkish fleet’s path to the Bosporus. The next day, on the way to the Bosphorus, the Russian squadron met the brig Mercury. The appearance of the ship spoke for itself, but the wounded brig proudly walked to join its squadron. Kazarsky boarded the flagship and reported on the heroic actions of the officers and crew. Vice Admiral A.S. Greig, in a detailed report to Emperor Nicholas I, emphasized that the crew of the brig committed “a feat that has no parallel in the annals of sea powers”. After this, “Mercury” continued its journey to Sevastopol, where a solemn meeting awaited it.

For this battle, Kazarsky was promoted to captain of the 2nd rank, awarded the Order of St. George, 4th degree, and received the rank of aide-de-camp. All the officers of the brig were promoted to rank and awarded orders, and the sailors were awarded the insignia of a military order. All officers and sailors were assigned a lifelong pension in the amount of double salary. The officers were allowed to include in their coats of arms the image of a pistol, which was prepared to blow up the ship. In honor of the feat of the Mercury crew, a commemorative medal was cast. The brig was the second of the Russian ships to receive the commemorative St. George flag and pennant. The news of the unprecedented victory of our small patrol vessel over the two strongest ships of the Turkish fleet quickly spread throughout Russia. Kazarsky became a national hero.

A.I. Kazarsky

Further history of Mercury

"Mercury" served in the Black Sea Fleet until November 9, 1857. After this, three ships alternately bore the name "Memory of Mercury", accepting and passing on his St. George's flag. Kazarsky died suddenly in 1833 in Nikolaev, when he was less than 36 years old. There is reason to believe that he was poisoned by thieving port officials in order to hide traces of his crimes. The following year, a monument to one of the first heroes of the city was erected on Michmansky Boulevard in Sevastopol. The initiative to install it was taken by the commander of the Black Sea squadron M.P. Lazarev. The author of the project was the famous architect A.P. Bryullov. On the granite pedestal of the monument there is a very brief, but very meaningful inscription carved: “To the Kazar. An example for posterity.”

Monument to A.I. Kazarsky

The result of the war

On September 14, 1829, the two parties signed Peace of Adrianople, as a result of which most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta passed to Russia.

The Ottoman Empire recognized the transfer to Russia of Georgia, Imereti, Mingrelia, Guria, as well as the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates (transferred by Iran under the Peace of Turkmanchay).

Türkiye reaffirmed its obligations under the Akkerman Convention of 1826 to respect the autonomy of Serbia.

Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in the Danube principalities during the reforms.

Türkiye also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece.

Türkiye was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.

Medal for participation in the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829.

Turkish Sultan Mahmud II Having learned about the destruction of his naval forces at Navarino, he became more embittered than before. The envoys of the Allied powers lost all hope of inducing him to accept London Treaty and left Constantinople. Following this, the Khatt-i-Sherif (decree) on universal militia for the faith and the fatherland was promulgated in all mosques of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan proclaimed that Russia was the eternal, indomitable enemy of Islam, that she was plotting the destruction of Turkey, that the Greek uprising was her cause, that she was the true culprit of the London Treaty, which was detrimental to the Ottoman Empire, and that the Porte in the last negotiations with her was only trying to gain time. and gather strength, deciding in advance not to fulfill Akkerman Convention.

The court of Nicholas I responded to such a hostile challenge with deep silence and delayed for four whole months in declaring a break, still not losing hope that the Sultan would think about the inevitable consequences of a new Russian-Turkish war for him and agree to peace; the hope was in vain. He challenged Russia to war not only with words, but also with deeds: he insulted our flag, detained ships and did not open the Bosphorus, which stopped all movement of our Black Sea trade. Moreover, at the very time when the peace agreements between Russia and Persia were approaching completion, Turkey, by hastily arming its troops and secretly promising strong support, shook the peaceful disposition of the Tehran court.

Forced to draw his sword in defense of the dignity and honor of Russia, the rights of his people acquired by victories and treaties, Emperor Nicholas I publicly announced that, contrary to the Sultan’s disclosures, he was not at all thinking about the destruction of the Turkish Empire or the spread of his power and would immediately cease military operations , begun by the Battle of Navarino, as soon as the Porte satisfies Russia in its fair demands, already recognized by the Ackerman Convention, will provide for the future a reliable guarantee of the validity and exact execution of previous treaties and will proceed to the terms of the London Treaty on Greek Affairs. Such a moderate response from Russia to the Turkish declaration, filled with malice and irreconcilable hatred, disarmed and calmed the most incredulous envious people of our political power. European cabinets could not but agree that it was impossible to act more noble and generous than the Russian emperor. God blessed his righteous cause.

The Russian-Turkish War began in the spring of 1828. On our part, an extensive plan of military action was drawn up in order to disturb Turkey from all sides and with combined, united strikes of land and sea forces in Europe and Asia, on the Black and Mediterranean seas, to convince the Porte of the impossibility of fighting Russia. Field Marshal Count Wittgenstein the main army was instructed to occupy Moldavia and Wallachia, cross the Danube and deliver a decisive blow to the enemy on the fields of Bulgaria or Rumelia; Count Paskevich-Erivansky was ordered to attack the Asian regions of Turkey with the Caucasian corps to divert its forces from Europe; Prince Menshikov with a separate detachment to take Anapa; Admiral Greig with the Black Sea Fleet to assist in the conquest of coastal fortresses in Bulgaria, Rumelia and on the eastern shore of the Black Sea; Admiral Heyden with the squadron located in the Archipelago to lock the Dardanelles to prevent the supply of food supplies from Egypt to Constantinople.

1828 Balkan Campaign

The main army, numbering 15,000 people, having started the Russian-Turkish war, crossed the border of the empire, the Prut River, at the end of April 1828 in three columns: the right, almost without firing a shot, captured Iasi, Bucharest, Craiova, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia and with a quick movement saved both principalities from the anger of the Turks, who intended to ruin both completely. The Moldovans and Wallachians greeted the Russians as saviors. The middle column, entrusted to the main command of Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, turned to Brailov and besieged it in order to secure the rear of the army beyond the Danube by taking this fortress, important in its strategic position on the path of our military operations. Below Brailov, against Isakchi, the troops of the left column, more numerous than others, concentrated to cross the Danube.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. Map

Here the Russian army faced one of the most glorious feats of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829: due to the extraordinary flood of spring waters, the Danube overflowed its banks and flooded the surrounding area over a vast area. The left, low side of it turned into an impassable swamp; in order to reach the bank of the river and build a bridge across it, it was necessary to first make an embankment, like those gigantic works with which the Romans still amaze us. The troops, inspired by the presence of the sovereign emperor, who shared the labors of the campaign with them, quickly set to work and built a dam over an area of 5 versts. The Turks also did not remain inactive: as we built the embankment, they erected batteries that threatened to destroy in crossfire all our efforts to build a bridge.

A favorable event made it easier for us to clear the right bank of the enemy. The Zaporozhye Cossacks, who had long lived at the mouths of the Danube under the patronage of the Porte, but who did not betray the faith of their forefathers, having learned that the Emperor himself was in the Russian camp, expressed a desire to strike the Orthodox Tsar with their foreheads and, carried away by his complacency, agreed to return to the bowels of their ancient fatherland. Their entire kosh moved to the left bank, with all the elders and the kosh chieftain. Hundreds of light ships were now at our disposal. Two regiments of rangers boarded Zaporozhye canoes, crossed the Danube, captured Turkish batteries and hoisted the Russian banner on the right bank. Following this, all the troops assigned for offensive operations in Bulgaria crossed over in orderly order. Sovereign Emperor Nicholas, himself leading the crossing, swam across the Danube waves in a Zaporozhye boat, steered by the Kosh chieftain.

Beyond the Danube, the Ottomans did not dare to meet us in the open field and locked themselves in the fortresses that had served as a stronghold for the Porte in the previous Russian-Turkish wars. The main points they defended, besides Brailov, were Silistria, Rushchuk, Varna and Shumla. Each of these fortresses had a large garrison, reliable fortifications and experienced military leaders. In Shumla, impregnable due to its position, 40,000 of the best Turkish troops were concentrated under the command of the courageous seraskir Hussein Pasha. Behind the Balkans there was a vizier with a reserve army to defend Constantinople.

In our main apartment, it was decided to start the war by moving directly to Shumla in order to test whether it would be possible to lure the seraskir into battle and, by defeating his troops, open the way beyond the Balkans. The small Transdanubian fortresses of Isakcha, Tulcea, Machin, Girsova, Kistenji, which lay on our way, could not delay us: they were taken one after another by separate detachments. But the stubborn defense of Brailov, on the left bank of the Danube, in the rear of the Russian army, forced it to stop for some time near the Trajan Wall. After waiting for Brailov to fall, the troops moved forward again; They walked in the midst of unbearable heat, through a country so barren and meager that they had to carry with them the smallest things, even coal. Unhealthy water gave rise to disease; horses and oxen died in the thousands from lack of food. The valiant Russian warriors overcame all obstacles, drove the enemy troops out of Pazardzhik and approached Shumla.

The hope for a fight was not fulfilled: Hussein remained motionless. It was difficult to take Shumla by attack or by regular siege; at the very least, one had to fear cruel bloodshed, and in case of failure one would have to return across the Danube. It also turned out to be impossible to surround it from all sides to prevent the supply of food supplies due to the small number of troops. To pass Shumla and go straight beyond the Balkans meant leaving a whole army in the rear, which could attack us in the Balkan gorges from behind, while the vizier would strike from the front.

Capture of Varna

The Russian emperor, avoiding any wrong enterprise, ordered Field Marshal Wittgenstein to remain near Shumla to observe Hussein; Meanwhile, the detachment of Prince Menshikov, which had already defeated Anapa, with the assistance of the Black Sea Fleet, captured Varna, and the corps of Prince Shcherbatov took Silistria. The capture of the first fortress provided food for the Russian army by transporting food supplies from Odessa by sea; the fall of the second was considered necessary for the safety of our army’s winter quarters beyond the Danube.

The siege of Varna lasted two months and a half. The small detachment of Prince Menshikov turned out to be too insufficient to conquer the first-class fortress, defended by an advantageous location, strongholds that always reflected all our efforts during the previous Russian-Turkish wars, and the courage of a 20,000 garrison, under the command of the brave captain Pasha, the Sultan’s favorite. In vain did the Black Sea Fleet, inspired by the presence of the Emperor, smash Varna from the sea: it did not surrender. The arrival of the Russian Guard to the aid of the siege corps gave a different turn to military operations. No matter how actively the garrison resisted, our work quickly moved to the very walls of the fortress, and all the efforts of the Turkish commander Omar-Vrione to save Varna by attacking the besiegers from the Balkan mountains were in vain: repulsed by Prince Eugene of Württemberg and the brave Bistrom, he had to go into the mountains. On September 29, 1828, Varna fell at the feet of the Russian emperor. Its conquest, providing food for the Russian troops in Bulgaria, at the same time deprived Shumla of its former importance in a strategic sense: the path to Rumelia through the Balkans was open from the sea, and only the early onset of winter forced us to postpone decisive action until the next campaign of this Russian-Turkish war. Count Wittgenstein returned across the Danube, leaving strong detachments in Varna, Pazardzhik and Pravody.

Campaign of 1828 in Transcaucasia

Meanwhile, in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 beyond the Caucasus, wonderful, incredible things were accomplished: there, before a handful of brave men, impregnable fortresses fell and numerous enemies disappeared. Acting defensively in Europe, the Turkish Sultan thought to inflict a strong blow on us in Asia, and at the very beginning of the war he gave the order to the Erzurum seraskir with an army of 40,000 to invade our Transcaucasian regions at various points, with full hope of success. In fact, the state of our affairs in that region was very difficult. The main Russian army had already crossed the Danube, and the Transcaucasian corps barely had time to return from the Persian campaign, exhausted by battles and illnesses; its ranks numbered no more than 12,000 people. Food supplies and military supplies were depleted; transports and artillery parks could hardly serve. The Muslim provinces subject to us, shaken by the appeals of the Sultan, were only waiting for the appearance of the Turks of the same faith in order to rebel against us en masse; the ruler of Guria, plotting treason, communicated with the enemy; In the villages of the mountaineers, general unrest reigned. It took a lot of intelligence, art and mental strength to avert the dangers that threatened the Transcaucasian region at the beginning of the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829. But Paskevich did more: the thunder of his victories stunned his enemies and made the Sultan tremble in Constantinople itself.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. Siege of Kars in 1828. Painting by Y. Sukhodolsky, 1839

Knowing that only a quick and bold strike could stop the enemy’s formidable desire for the Transcaucasian region, Paskevich decided on a brave feat: with a corps of 12,000 he moved (1828) into the borders of Asian Turkey and, beyond the expectations of his enemies, appeared under the walls of Kars, a fortress famous in Turkish chronicles: they remembered that she repelled Shah Nadir, who unsuccessfully besieged her for 4 whole months with 90,000 troops. Our efforts to take possession of it in 1807, during the Russian-Turkish War of 1806-1812, were also in vain. Count Paskevich did not stand near Kars for even four days. He took it by storm. Turkish troops sent by Seraskir to invade Georgia from Kars retreated to Erzurum.

Capture of Akhaltsikhe by Paskevich (1828)

Meanwhile, the most important danger threatened the Russian borders from the other side: up to 30,000 Turks, under the command of two noble pashas, sought to reach the borders of Guria, along the Akhaltsikhe road. I hurried to warn them near Akhaltsikhe. An unexpected obstacle stopped him: a plague appeared in the building; a rare regiment was not infected. Saving his brave companions from death, the commander-in-chief stood in one place for three whole weeks. Finally, his prudent and decisive measures were crowned with the desired success: the plague stopped. The Russian army quickly moved to the borders of Guria, casually captured the important fortress of Akhalkalaki, then Gertvis, made an incredibly difficult transition through high mountain ranges that were considered impassable, overcame the unbearable heat and approached Akhaltsikhe. At the same time, both pashas, who came from Erzurum, appeared under its walls with an army of 30,000. Paskevich attacked them, completely defeated both of them, scattered their troops through the forests, captured four fortified camps, all the artillery, and turned the guns captured from the enemy to Akhaltsikhe.

Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich

Founded by Caucasian daredevils in mountain gorges, on rocks and cliffs, Akhaltsikhe, long before the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829, served as a hangout for riotous freemen of different faiths and tribes, who found a safe refuge in it, was famous throughout Anatolia for the warlike spirit of its inhabitants, and conducted active trade with Erzurum, Erivan, Tiflis, Trebizond, had up to 50,000 inhabitants within its walls, and since it fell into the power of the Turks, for about three centuries it has not seen foreign banners on its walls. Tormasov could not take it, and it is not surprising: the defense of Akhaltsikhe was served by unusually solid and high palisades that surrounded the entire city, a fortress, three-tiered fire from numerous artillery, houses built in the form of fortified castles, and the tested courage of the inhabitants, each of whom was a warrior.

Confident in his abilities, Pasha of Akhaltsikhe proudly responded to all offers of surrender that a saber would decide the matter. Three weeks of fire from our batteries did not shake his tenacity. Meanwhile, our meager reserves were exhausted. It remained to either retreat or take Akhaltsikhe by storm. In the first case, one had to be wary of an unfavorable influence on the Russians on the minds of enemies, open and secret; in the second, the entire corps could easily have died in the fight against an enemy five times stronger. The brave Russian leader Paskevich decided on the latter. On August 15, 1828, at 4 o’clock in the afternoon, the assault column, led by Colonel Borodin, launched an attack and, after incredible efforts, broke into Akhaltsikhe; but here a desperate battle awaited her; it was necessary to storm every house and pay dearly for every step forward. This one of the most glorious battles of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 lasted the whole night amid a fire that engulfed almost the entire Akhaltsikhe; several times the advantage leaned towards the side of numerous enemies. With rare skill, Commander-in-Chief Paskevich supported the weakening forces of his columns, sent regiments after regiments, brought his entire corps into action and triumphed: on the morning of August 16, 1828, the Russian St. George’s Banner was already flying at the Akhaltsikhe fortress.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. Battles for Akhaltsikhe in 1828. Painting by Y. Sukhodolsky, 1839

The winner Paskevich hastened to calm the bloodshed, granted mercy and protection to the vanquished, established an order of government consistent with their customs, and, having restored the destroyed fortifications of Akhaltsikhe, turned it into a reliable stronghold of Georgia from Asian Turkey. The conquest of Bayazet by a separate detachment at the foot of Ararat ensured the annexation of the entire Erivan region. Thus, in less than two months, with the most limited means, the will of the sovereign emperor was fulfilled: the enemy army, threatening the Transcaucasian region with a ruinous invasion, was scattered by Paskevich; The pashalyks of Karsky and Akhaltsikhe were in Russian power.

Preparations for the 1829 campaign

The successes of Russian weapons in 1828 in Europe and Asia, on land and at sea, the occupation of two principalities, most of Bulgaria, a significant part of Anatolia, the conquest of 14 fortresses, the captivity of 30,000 people with 9 pashas, 400 banners and 1,200 guns - all this, it seemed, was supposed to convince the Sultan of the need to end the Russian-Turkish war and reconcile with the powerful Emperor of Russia. But Mahmud remained adamant in hostility and, rejecting peace proposals, was preparing to resume the war.

An unexpected event confirmed the Sultan's intention to continue the Russian-Turkish war. At the end of January 1829, our envoy in Tehran, the famous writer Griboyedov, was killed with most of his retinue by a frantic mob; at the same time, the hostile disposition of the Shah was revealed, who even began to concentrate his troops near the Russian borders, on the Araks. The Sultan hastened to start negotiations with the Tehran court and no longer doubted the break between Persia and Russia. His hope was not fulfilled. Count Paskevich rejected a new Russian-Persian war. He let the heir to the throne, Abbas Mirza, know that the extermination of the imperial mission in Tehran threatened Persia with the most disastrous consequences, that a new war with Russia could even overthrow the Qajar dynasty from the throne, and that there was no other way to make amends for the deplorable loss and avert the storm than to ask for forgiveness from the Russian Emperor for the unheard of act of the Tehran mob through one of the Persian princes. No matter how painful such a proposal was for Eastern pride, Abbas Mirza convinced the Shah to agree, and Abbas’s eldest son, Khozrev Mirza, in a solemn audience, in the presence of the entire court and diplomatic corps, at the foot of the Russian throne, asked the sovereign emperor to consign the incident to eternal oblivion , which insulted the Russian court as well as the Persian court. “The Shah’s heart was horrified,” said the prince, “at the thought that a handful of villains could break his alliance with the great monarch of Russia.” We could not have wished for better retribution: the prince was informed that his embassy had dispelled any shadow that could darken the mutual relations of Russia with Persia.

Deprived of the assistance of the Shah, the Sultan did not lose hope of turning the tide of the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 and mobilized all his forces to fight Russia. His army, concentrated in Shumla, was increased by several thousand regular troops sent from Constantinople, and the new Turkish vizier, the active and brave Reshid Pasha, was given orders to take Varna from the Russians at all costs and drive them out of Bulgaria. A new seraskir with unlimited powers was also appointed to Erzurum; Gagki Pasha, a commander known for skill and courage, was sent to help him: they were tasked with arming up to 200,000 people in Anatolia, capturing Kars and Akhaltsikhe and defeating our Transcaucasian regions.

The Emperor, for his part, having strengthened the army stationed on the Danube, entrusted it, due to the illness of Field Marshal Wittgenstein, to the chief superiors of the Count Dibich. Count Paskevich's corps was also assigned reinforcements. Both commanders were ordered to conduct the Russian-Turkish war in 1829 as decisively as possible. They carried out the will of their sovereign in the most brilliant manner.

Having crossed the Danube with the main army, in the spring of 1829 Count Dibich besieged Silistria, which we did not manage to take last year due to the early onset of winter. The commander-in-chief turned in that direction both because the conquest of Silistria was necessary to ensure our actions beyond the Danube, and also with the intention of luring the vizier out of Shumla. It was almost possible to guarantee that the active Turkish commander, taking advantage of the distance of the main Russian army, would not leave our detachments stationed in Pravody and Pazardzhik alone, and would turn on them with the bulk of his forces. The vision of the far-sighted leader soon came true.

Battle of Kulevcha (1829)

In mid-May 1829, the vizier set out from Shumla with 40,000 of his best troops and besieged Pravody, occupied by General Kupriyanov, under the main command of General Roth, who distracted him with a stubborn defense and let the commander-in-chief know about the enemy’s withdrawal from his impregnable position. Count Diebitsch was just waiting for this: having entrusted the siege of Silistria to General Krasovsky, he himself hastily moved to the Balkans with most of his army, walked without rest, skillfully concealed his movement, and on the fifth day stood in the rear of Reshid, thus cutting him off from Shumla. The Turkish vizier was not at all aware of the danger that threatened him and calmly engaged in the siege of Truth; Having finally learned about the appearance of the Russians in his rear, he mistook them for a weak detachment from the corps of General Roth, who had dared to block his road to Shumla, and turned his army to exterminate what he considered to be a small enemy. Beyond all hope, Dibich himself met him in the gorges of Kulevchi on May 30, 1829. Reshid realized the full danger of his position, but did not lose courage and decided to break through the Russian army. He quickly and boldly launched an attack at all points and met with formidable resistance everywhere. In vain the Turks rushed with a fury of despair at our slender columns, cut into the infantry, crashed into the cavalry: the Russians were unshakable. The long battle tired both armies so much that around noon the battle seemed to calm down on its own. Taking this opportunity, Dibich reinforced the tired soldiers with fresh regiments and, in turn, attacked the enemy. The battle resumed with a terrible cannonade from both sides; She did not hesitate for long: from the brutal fire of our batteries, controlled by the chief of staff himself, General Tol, the enemy guns fell silent and the enemies trembled. At that very moment, Count Dibich moved forward his incomparable infantry, the formidable columns struck them with bayonets. The orderliness and speed of the widespread attack left the Turks in awe: they fled and scattered in the mountains, leaving up to 5,000 corpses, the entire convoy, artillery and banners on the battlefield. The vizier barely escaped capture by the speed of his horse and with great difficulty made his way to Shumla, where not even half of his army returned. The winner camped in full view of him.

Dibich's Trans-Balkan campaign (1829)

The victory at Kulevcha had very important consequences for the course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. Completely defeated, trembling for Shumla itself, the vizier, to protect it, drew to himself the detachments guarding the paths in the mountains, and thereby opened the Balkan gorges and also weakened the coastline. Graph Dibich decided to take advantage of the enemy’s mistake and was just waiting for the conquest of Silistria in order to cross the Balkans. It finally fell, driven by the activity and art of General Krasovsky to the point of impossibility of continuing the defense. The commander-in-chief immediately transferred the corps besieging Silistria to Shumla and instructed Krasovsky to lock the vizier in its strongholds; he himself, with other troops, quickly moved to the Balkan Mountains. The advanced corps of Roth and Ridiger cleared the path of the enemy, knocked him out of all the places where he wanted to stop, captured the crossings on Kamchik from the battle and descended into the valleys of Rumelia. Dibich followed them.

Field Marshal Ivan Dibich-Zabalkansky

Krasovsky, meanwhile, acted with such skill near Shumla that Reshid Pasha for several days mistook his corps for the entire Russian army, and then only learned about its movement for the Balkans, when it had already passed the dangerous gorges. In vain he tried to strike her in the rear: the brave Krasovsky struck him himself and locked him in Shumla.

Meanwhile, the Russian naval forces in the Black Sea and in the Archipelago, by order of the Emperor himself, in accordance with the actions of the commander-in-chief, captured the coastal fortresses in Rumelia, Inado and Enos and united with the land army.

In the fertile valleys of Rumelia, Diebitsch's Trans-Balkan campaign - the most heroic act of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 - was likened to a solemn procession: small detachments of Turkish troops were unable to stop it, and the cities surrendered one after another with almost no resistance. The Russian army maintained strict discipline, and the inhabitants of Rumelia, assured of the inviolability of their property and personal safety, willingly submitted to the winner. Thus Diebitsch reached Adrianople, the second capital of the Turkish Empire. The pashas in charge wanted to defend themselves and lined up an army. But numerous crowds of people, avoiding bloodshed, left the city with greetings to meet our soldiers, and the populous Adrianople was occupied by the Russians on August 8, 1829 without a fight.

Dibich stood in Adrianople, leaning on the archipelago squadron with his right flank and the Black Sea fleet with his left.

Campaign of 1829 in Transcaucasia. Capture of Erzurum by Diebitsch

The Russians dealt an equally cruel blow to the Turks in Asia. Fulfilling the order of the sovereign emperor, who demanded the most decisive action, Count Paskevich in the spring of 1829 concentrated his entire corps in the vicinity of Kars, which included up to 18,000 people, including Muslims recruited in areas recently conquered by our weapons. The brave Russian leader planned to immortalize the memory of this Russian-Turkish war with a feat worthy of his glory - the capture of the capital of Anatolia, the rich and populous Erzurum.

Seraskir of Erzurum, for his part, assembled an army of 50,000 with the intention of taking away from us the conquests of the past year and invading our borders. For this purpose, he sent his comrade Gagki Pasha with half the army to Kars; he led the other half himself to help him. Count Paskevich hurried to defeat them one by one, before they had time to unite, crossed the high Saganlungsky ridge, covered with snow, and met Gagki Pasha, who was standing in a fortified camp, in an impregnable place. Ten miles away from him there was a seraskir. The commander-in-chief rushed at the latter and after a short battle scattered his army; then he turned to Gagki Pasha and took him prisoner. Two enemy camps, convoys, and artillery were the trophies of this victory, famous in the annals of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829.

Without giving the enemies time to recover from their horror, Paskevich quickly moved forward and a few days later appeared under the walls of Erzurum. Seraskir wanted to defend himself; but the inhabitants, confirmed by repeated experiences in the generosity of the winner, in the inviolability of their property and their charters, did not want to experience the fate of Akhaltsikhe and submitted voluntarily. Seraskir surrendered to prisoners of war. The Turkish army did not exist. In vain the new seraskir, sent by the Sultan, wanted to oust the Russians from Erzurum and gathered scattered troops: Paskevich defeated him within the walls of Bayburt and was already intending to penetrate further into the borders of Anatolia, when the news of the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 stopped his victorious march.

After which the Porte sued for peace.

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✪ Foreign policy of Nicholas I in 1826 - 1849. Continuation. Video lesson on the history of Russia, grade 8

✪ Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829, part one

✪ Russian-Turkish war. Results. Video lesson on the history of Russia, grade 8

✪ Russian-Persian War 1826-1828, part two.

✪ Russian-Turkish wars (narrated by Andrey Svetenko and Armen Gasparyan)

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War statistics

Warring countries	Population (1828)	Soldier mobilized	Soldier killed	Soldiers who died from their wounds	Wounded soldiers	Soldiers who died from disease
Russian empire	55 883 800	200 000	10 000	5 000	10 000	110 000
Ottoman Empire	25 664 000	280 000	15 000	5 000	15 000	60 000
TOTAL	81 883 800	480 000	25 000	10 000	25 000	170 000

Background and reason

They were opposed by Turkish armies totaling up to 200 thousand people. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus); Of the fleet, only 10 ships that were stationed in the Bosporus survived.

Bessarabia was chosen as the basis for Wittgenstein's actions; the principalities (severely depleted by Turkish rule and the drought of 1827) were supposed to be occupied only to restore order in them and protect them from enemy invasion, as well as to protect the right wing of the army in case of Austrian intervention. Wittgenstein, having crossed the Lower Danube, was supposed to move to Varna and Shumla, cross the Balkans and advance to Constantinople; a special detachment was supposed to land at Anapa and, upon capturing it, join the main forces.

On April 25, the 6th Infantry Corps entered the principalities, and its vanguard under the command of General Fedor Geismar headed for Lesser Wallachia; On May 1, the 7th Infantry Corps besieged the Brailov fortress; The 3rd Infantry Corps was supposed to cross the Danube between Izmail and Reni, near the village of Satunovo, but the construction of a road through a lowland flooded with water required about a month of time, during which the Turks strengthened the right bank opposite the crossing point, placing up to 10 thousand people in their position. troops.

On the morning of May 27, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began in the presence of the sovereign. Despite the fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the Isakcha fortress surrendered. Having separated detachments to besiege Machin, Girsov and Tulcha, the main forces of the 3rd Corps reached Karasu on June 6, and their vanguard, under the command of General Fedor Ridiger, besieged Kyustendzhi.

The siege of Brailov quickly moved forward, and the head of the siege troops, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, hastening to finish this matter so that the 7th Corps could join the 3rd, decided to storm the fortress on June 3; the assault was repulsed, but when Machin’s surrender followed 3 days later, commandant Brailov, seeing himself cut off and having lost hope of help, also surrendered (June 7).

At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa took place. At Karasu, the 3rd Corps stood for 17 whole days, since after the allocation of garrisons to the occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments, no more than 20 thousand remained in it. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th Corps and the arrival of the 4th Reserve. the cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would reach 60 thousand; but even this was not considered sufficient for decisive action, and at the beginning of June the 2nd Infantry was ordered to move from Little Russia to the Danube. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25 thousand) were already on their way to the theater of war.

After the fall of Brailov, the 7th Corps was sent to join the 3rd; General Roth with two infantry and one cavalry brigades was ordered to besiege Silistria, and General Borozdin with six infantry and four cavalry regiments was ordered to guard Wallachia. Even before all these orders were carried out, the 3rd Corps moved to Bazardzhik, where, according to information received, significant Turkish forces were gathering.

Between June 24 and 26, Bazardzhik was occupied, after which two vanguards were advanced: Ridiger - to Kozludzha and Admiral General Count Pavel Sukhtelen - to Varna, to which a detachment of Lieutenant General Alexander Ushakov from Tulcha was also sent. In early July, the 7th Corps joined the 3rd Corps; but their combined forces did not exceed 40 thousand; it was still impossible to count on the assistance of the fleet stationed at Anapa; The siege parks were partly located near the named fortress, and partly stretched from Brailov.

Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna gradually strengthened; Riediger's vanguard was constantly harassed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to limit himself to one observation regarding Varna (for which Ushakov’s detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir from the fortified camp and, having defeated him, turn to the siege of Varna.

On July 8, the main forces approached Shumla and besieged it from the eastern side, strongly strengthening their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communications with Varna. Decisive action against Shumla was supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guards. However, the main forces of the Russian army soon found themselves in a kind of blockade, since in their rear and on the flanks the enemy developed partisan actions, which greatly hampered the arrival of transports and foraging. Meanwhile, Ushakov’s detachment also could not hold out against the superior garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkoy.

In mid-July, the Russian fleet arrived from near Anapa to Kovarna and, having landed the troops on board the ships, headed for Varna, against which it stopped. The head of the landing forces, Prince Alexander Menshikov, having joined Ushakov’s detachment, on July 22 also approached the said fortress, besieged it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. General Roth's detachment stationed at Silistria could not do anything due to insufficient strength and lack of siege artillery. Things also did not progress near Shumla, and although the Turkish attacks launched on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this.

In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces there, did not promise success; Diseases were raging among the troops stationed near Shumla, and horses were dying in droves from lack of food; Meanwhile, the insolence of the Turkish partisans was increasing.

At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the town of Pravody, occupied by a detachment of Adjutant General Benckendorf, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his position at Silistria, whose garrison also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, observing Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Rushchuk, where enemy forces also increased. The weak detachment of General Geismar (about 6 thousand), although it held its position between Calafat and Craiova, could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Lesser Wallachia.

The enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Kalafat, strengthened the garrisons of Rakhov and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks everywhere had an advantage in forces, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry. The latter was ordered to relieve Roth's detachment at Silistria, which would then be drawn near Shumla; The guard is sent to Varna. To recover this fortress, 30 thousand Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione arrived from the Kamchik River. Several ineffective attacks followed from both sides, and when Varna surrendered on September 29, Omer began a hasty retreat, pursued by the detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and headed towards Aidos, where the vizier’s troops had retreated earlier.

Meanwhile, gr. Wittgenstein continued to stand under Shumla; His troops, after allocating reinforcements to Varna and other detachments, remained only about 15 thousand; but on the 20th of September. The 6th Corps approached him. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd Corps, lacking siege artillery, could not take decisive action.

Meanwhile, the Turks continued to threaten Lesser Wallachia; but the brilliant victory won by Geismar near the village of Boelesti put an end to their attempts. After the fall of Varna, the final goal of the 1828 campaign was the conquest of Silistria, and the 3rd Corps was sent to it. The rest of the troops located near Shumla had to winter in the occupied part of the country; the guard returned to Russia. However, the enterprise against Silistria due to the lack of shells in the siege artillery did not materialize, and the fortress was subjected to only a 2-day bombardment.

After the retreat of the Russian troops from Shumla, the vizier decided to take possession of Varna again and on November 8 moved to Pravody, but, having met resistance from the detachment occupying the city, he returned to Shumla. In January 1829, a strong Turkish detachment raided the rear of the 6th Corps, captured Kozludzha and attacked Bazardzhik, but failed there; and after that, Russian troops drove the enemy out of Kozludzha; in the same month the fortress of Turno was taken. The rest of the winter passed quietly.

In Transcaucasia

The separate Caucasian Corps began operations a little later; he was ordered to invade Asian Turkey.

In Asian Turkey in 1828, things were going well for Russia: on June 23, Kars was taken, and after a temporary suspension of hostilities due to the appearance of the plague, Paskevich conquered the Akhalkalaki fortress on July 23, and in early August approached Akhaltsikhe, which surrendered on the 16th of the same month. Then the fortresses of Atskhur and Ardahan surrendered without resistance. At the same time, separate Russian detachments took Poti and Bayazet.

Military actions in 1829

During the winter, both sides actively prepared for the resumption of hostilities. By the end of April 1829, the Porte managed to increase its forces in the European theater of war to 150 thousand and, in addition, could count on the 40 thousand Albanian militia collected by the Scutari Pasha Mustafa. The Russians could oppose these forces with no more than 100 thousand. In Asia, the Turks had up to 100 thousand troops against Paskevich’s 20 thousand. Only the Russian Black Sea fleet (about 60 ships of various ranks) had a decisive superiority over the Turkish one; Yes, Count Heyden’s squadron (35 ships) also cruised in the Archipelago (Aegean Sea).

At the European theater

Appointed commander-in-chief in Wittgenstein's place, Count Diebitsch actively set about replenishing the army and organizing its economic part. Having set out to cross the Balkans, in order to provide food for the troops on the other side of the mountains, he turned to the assistance of the fleet and asked Admiral Greig to take possession of any harbor convenient for the delivery of supplies. The choice fell on Sizopol, which, after its capture, was occupied by a 3,000-strong Russian garrison. The attempt made by the Turks at the end of March to recapture this city was unsuccessful, and then they limited themselves to blockading it from the dry route. As for the Ottoman fleet, it left the Bosphorus at the beginning of May, however, it stayed closer to its shores; at the same time, two Russian military ships were accidentally surrounded by it; one of them (the 36-gun frigate “Raphael”) surrendered, and the other, the brig “Mercury” under the command of Kazarsky, managed to fight off the enemy ships pursuing it and escape.

At the end of May, the squadrons of Greig and Heyden began to blockade the straits and interrupted all supplies by sea to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Dibich, in order to secure his rear before the movement for the Balkans, decided first of all to take possession of Silistria; but the late onset of spring delayed him, so that only at the end of April he could cross the Danube with the forces required for this purpose. On May 7, siege work began, and on May 9, new troops crossed to the right bank, bringing the forces of the siege corps to 30 thousand.

Around the same time, the vizier Reshid Pasha opened offensive operations with the goal of returning Varna; however, after persistent dealings with the troops, Gen. The company at Eski-Arnautlar and Pravod again retreated to Shumla. In mid-May, the vizier with his main forces again moved towards Varna. Having received news of this, Dibich, leaving one part of his troops at Silistria, went to the vizier’s rear with the other. This maneuver led to the defeat (May 30) of the Ottoman army near the village of Kulevchi.

Although after such a decisive victory one could count on capturing Shumla, however, it was preferred to confine oneself to just observing it. Meanwhile, the siege of Silistria was successful, and on June 18 this fortress surrendered. Following this, the 3rd Corps was sent to Shumla, the rest of the Russian troops intended for the Trans-Balkan campaign began to secretly converge on Devno and Pravody.

Meanwhile, the vizier, convinced that Diebitsch would besiege Shumla, gathered troops there from wherever possible - even from the Balkan passes and from coastal points on the Black Sea. The Russian army, meanwhile, was advancing towards Kamchik and after a series of battles both on this river and during further movement in the mountains of the 6th and 7th corps, around mid-July, they crossed the Balkan ridge, simultaneously capturing two fortresses, Misevria and Ahiolo , and the important harbor of Burgas.

This success, however, was overshadowed by the strong development of diseases, from which the troops were noticeably melting. The vizier finally found out where the main forces of the Russian army were headed and sent reinforcements to the pashas Abdurahman and Yusuf acting against them; but it was already too late: the Russians moved forward uncontrollably; On July 13, they occupied the city of Aidos, 14 Karnabat, and 31 Dibich attacked the 20 thousand Turkish corps concentrated near the city of Slivno, defeated it and interrupted communication between Shumla and Adrianople.

Although the commander-in-chief now had no more than 25 thousand at hand, but in view of the friendly disposition of the local population and the complete demoralization of the Turkish troops, he decided to move to Adrianople, hoping by his very appearance in the second capital of the Ottoman Empire to force the Sultan to peace.

After intensive marches, the Russian army approached Adrianople on August 7, and the surprise of its arrival so embarrassed the commander of the garrison there that he offered to surrender. The next day, part of the Russian troops was brought into the city, where large reserves of weapons and other things were found.

The occupation of Adrianople and Erzerum, the close blockade of the straits and internal troubles in Turkey finally shook the Sultan’s stubbornness; Representatives came to Diebitsch's main apartment to negotiate peace. However, these negotiations were deliberately delayed by the Turks, counting on the help of England and Austria; and meanwhile the Russian army was melting more and more, and danger threatened it from all sides. The difficulty of the situation increased further when the Scutari Pasha Mustafa, who had until then avoided participating in hostilities, now led a 40,000-strong Albanian army to the theater of war.

In mid-August he occupied Sofia and advanced the vanguard to Philippopolis. Diebitsch, however, was not embarrassed by the difficulty of his position: he announced to the Turkish commissioners that he was giving them until September 1 to receive final instructions, and if after that peace was not concluded, then hostilities on the Russian side would resume. To reinforce these demands, several detachments were sent to Constantinople and contact was established between them and the squadrons of Greig and Heyden.

An order was sent to Adjutant General Kiselyov, who commanded the Russian troops in the principalities: leaving part of his forces to guard Wallachia, cross the Danube with the rest and move against Mustafa. The advance of Russian troops towards Constantinople had its effect: the alarmed Sultan begged the Prussian envoy to go as an intermediary to Diebitsch. His arguments, supported by letters from other ambassadors, prompted the commander-in-chief to stop the movement of troops towards the Turkish capital. Then the commissioners of the Porte agreed to all the conditions proposed to them, and on September 2 the Peace of Adrianople was signed.

Despite this, Mustafa of Scutaria continued his offensive, and at the beginning of September his vanguard approached Haskioy, and from there moved to Demotika. The 7th Corps was sent to meet him. Meanwhile, Adjutant General Kiselev, having crossed the Danube at Rakhov, went to Gabrov to act on the flank of the Albanians, and Geismar’s detachment was sent through Orhaniye to threaten their rear. Having defeated the side detachment of the Albanians, Geismar occupied Sofia in mid-September, and Mustafa, having learned about this, returned to Philippopolis. Here he remained for part of the winter, but after the complete devastation of the city and its environs he returned to Albania. The detachments of Kiselev and Geismar already at the end of September retreated to Vratsa, and at the beginning of November the last troops of the Russian main army set out from Adrianople.

In Asia

In the Asian theater of war, the 1829 campaign opened in difficult conditions: residents of the occupied areas were every minute ready to revolt; already at the end of February a strong Turkish corps besieged