Territorial structure of economic settlement. Territorial structures and their types
To know the patterns determined by economic laws means not only to determine their objective orientation and nature, but also to be able to apply these patterns at a specific stage of the socio-economic development of the state in the specific conditions of each region.
In practical activities for scientifically based economic management, knowledge of patterns leads to the development of basic rules of state policy.
Unlike the laws principles are dynamic and change with changes in the economic and socio-political situation in the country.
Factors reflect more objectively the processes that have a decisive impact on the location of the economy.
1. Technical and economic factors - related to scientific and technical progress. They influence changes in technology, equipment and production location conditions.
2. Natural factors - associated with the discovery of new deposits of new resources, the characteristics of natural conditions and the protection of the environment and the influence of this environment on humans and vice versa.
3. Historical factor – reflects the labor of the population in dynamics. Forms of settlement, population structure, etc.
4. Social factor
The difference between factors and principles is that the action of factors changes in an evolutionary way. The principles are of a political nature. With the change of power, the principles also change.
Sectoral structure of the national economy. Its main areas.
It is not only an indicator of the level of economic development of the state, but also determines the nature and orientation of the country in the world economy.
On the territory of the regions, the industrial structure is represented by specific levels of production that satisfy not only their own needs but also the needs of other regions of the country and, in some cases, exporting products to other countries.
2. Industries that deliver material values to consumers. Transport and communications. 4%
3. Industries related to the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation. Trade, logistics and sales, information and computing services, food, procurement, etc. 10%
Material structure 64%.
Non-production sphere:
1. Transport and communications for public services, etc.
2. Social service sectors include education 8%, healthcare 6%, science and scientific services 4%, culture and art 1.5%, finance and credit and pensions 8%,
3. Management and defense 2.5%
Territorial structure of the national economy (TSNH). Support frame theory. Types of territorial structure of economy and settlement.
The territorial structure is a reflection of the sectoral structure of each specific territory.
The territorial structure is represented by two elements:
· Transport routes
· Settlements
Each territory basically has a “skeleton” on which all other elements are superimposed. Therefore, each supporting frame forms its own pattern of territory and G.M. Lappo substantiates several supporting frames characteristic of each specific territory
· Circle (similar to the Moscow metro scheme)
· Semi-radial-ring type (Scheme of the St. Petersburg metro)
Lattice (Kursk, Tula, Tambov, Voronezh regions)
Chain (Kemerovo region)
· Seaside type
· Triangular type. (Caucasus)
This is the division of the national economic system into territorial entities, zones, districts, and industrial hubs. The territorial structure changes more slowly than the sectoral structure, because its main elements are more closely tied to a specific territory. The structure is characterized by the cost of fixed assets, the degree of development of the territory, the territorial concentration of production and population, and the localization of all production.
Economic assessment of sectoral and territorial structures
Modern science has developed many quantitative indicators that make it possible to characterize a particular territory in a generalized form. Comparison of these indicators and their totality make it possible to study the territorial differences of all phenomena and processes inherent in a given territory.
In recent years, a large number of index (obtained using mathematical formulas) indicators have been selected and combined into two groups:
1. Indicators for determining the sectoral structure of the economy
2. Indicators for determining the territorial structure of the economy.
Indicators for studying industry structure.
Determining the area specialization indicator
It is the ratio of the share of a region in an industry to the share of a region in a given region. This indicator is determined when the specialization coefficient Su>=1.
Localization coefficient of a given production in a given area
It is the ratio of the share of an industry in the production structure of a region to the share of the same industry in the country.
P – production personnel and the number of industrial personnel in the country
O – Gross marketable output
Indicator of the general level of specialization of the region
Represents the ratio of the total social product produced in the area and exported from the area (in value terms). To the total social product only produced in the area (in value terms).
The higher the indicator of the general level of specialization of the region, the more specialized the region in the all-Russian division of labor.
Territorial concentration coefficient
B – gross output of the region or country
О – main production assets of the region or country
P – Number of personnel employed in material production in the region or country
The concentration coefficient by region will be more proportional the smaller the difference between the territories.
All indicators of this coefficient are calculated per 1 km 2
Natural resource potential (NRP).
1. PRP its meaning. Concept of natural resources.
2. Classification of natural resources.
3. Resource availability. Concept, essence, principles.
4. Economic assessment of natural resources.
PRP its meaning. Concept of natural resources.
PRP is a set of all types of natural resources that are currently known and the use of which in the foreseeable future is possible according to technical criteria. Russia occupies one of the first places in terms of general geological and explored reserves of most natural resources. This primarily concerns energy resources: oil, gas and coal. For certain types of metallurgical raw materials: iron ores, cobalt ores, nickel, tin. Mining chemical raw materials: apatites.
Settlement- interconnection and mutual position of settlements within a specific territory. Settlement forms depend
on the natural features of the territory, the level of its economic development and the forms of settlements. There are four forms of settlement:
§ temporary settlement (dacha villages, shift camps for oil workers, hunting camps, etc.);
§ rural - corresponds to the level of an agrarian society;
§ cities and towns - corresponds to the level of industrial society;
§ urbanized spaces and suburban areas - corresponds to the level of a post-industrial (service and information) society.
There are 3 trends in modern settlement: urbanization, suburbanization, ruralization.
One of the most important and global processes of the modern world is urbanization, i.e. the growth of cities and the increase in the proportion of urban populations, as well as the emergence of more complex networks and systems of cities. Most countries of the world, including Russia, are characterized by the following features of urbanization:
§ rapid growth of urban population;
§ concentration of population and economy in large cities;
§ transition from a compact (spot city) to urban agglomerations - territorial groupings of urban and rural settlements.
Suburbanization - migration of the population to suburban areas. Ruralization - population migration to rural settlements. In accordance with the forms of settlement, settlements are distinguished.
Cities. These are settlements with a population of up to 12 thousand people. and which perform primarily non-agricultural functions. Based on population, cities are divided into: small (up to 20 thousand inhabitants); medium (up to 100 thousand); large (more than 100 thousand); large (more than 250 thousand); the largest (more than 500 thousand); millionaire cities. By purpose or function, cities are divided into: industrial: transport; scientific centers; resort cities. The capitals of republics, centers of territories and regions perform several functions. These are multifunctional cities. The total number of large cities has increased 10 times compared to the pre-war period; 40% of the Russian population lives in them. In total, in 2009 there were 1099 cities in Russia.
According to the results of the 2002 census, there were 13 “millionaire” cities in Russia:
1. Moscow - 10,357.8 thousand people.
2. St. Petersburg - 4669.4 thousand people.
3. Novosibirsk - 1425.6 thousand people.
4. Nizhny Novgorod - 1311.2 thousand people.
5. Yekaterinburg - 1293.0 thousand people.
6. Samara - 1158.1 thousand people.
7. Omsk - 1133.9 thousand people.
8. Kazan - 1105.3 thousand people.
9. Chelyabinsk - 1078.3 thousand people.
10. Rostov-on-Don - 1070.2 thousand people.
11. Ufa - 1042.4 thousand people.
12. Volgograd - 1012.8 thousand people.
13. Perm - 1000.1 thousand people.
According to the statistical collection “Regions of Russia. Basic socio-economic indicators of cities. 2009” the ranking of millionaire cities has changed significantly:
1. Moscow - 10,509.0 thousand people.
2. St. Petersburg - 4581.9 thousand people.
3. Novosibirsk - 1397.2 thousand people.
4. Yekaterinburg - 1332.3 thousand people.
5. Nizhny Novgorod - 1272.5 thousand people.
6. Samara - 1134.7 thousand people.
7. Kazan - 1130.7 thousand people.
8. Omsk - 1129.1 thousand people.
9. Chelyabinsk - 1093.7 thousand people.
10. Rostov-on-Don - 1049.0 thousand people.
I. Ufa - 1024.8 thousand. people
1. Perm - 985.8 thousand people.
2. Volgograd - 981.9 thousand people.
The population in the largest cities of the Russian Federation has increased only in Moscow, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Chelyabinsk; the decline in the population in other million-plus cities has led to the fact that the population of Volgograd and Perm no longer exceeds a million inhabitants. Thus, in 2009 there were already 11 millionaire cities in the Russian Federation.
Urban settlements- these are settlements with a population of more than 3 thousand people, of which 85% are not employed in agriculture. Filed in 2009 in the Russian Federation - 1318 urban-type settlements.
Rural settlements- these are settlements with a population of less than 3 thousand people, mainly employed in agriculture. There are 40 million people in Russia. rural population.
The population of Russia is unevenly distributed. Its average density is 8.3 people. per 1 km 2 (this is six times less than the average world population density, which in 2009 was 50 people per 1 km 2). At the same time, in the European part of Russia it is 1.7 times less than the world average (29 people per 1 km2), and in Siberia it is 20 times lower (2.5 people per 1 km2). In some territories, the population density reaches 367 people per 1 km 2 (Moscow and the Moscow region), and in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug it is 0.07 people per 1 km 2.
Based on the characteristics of human settlement, population density, the predominant types of settlements, and the degree of economic development in Russia, two main zones are distinguished, stretching from west to east: the main settlement zone and the northern zone. They developed historically under the influence of natural and socio-economic factors.
Statistical data for 2008 on population settlement in federal districts are shown in Fig. 2.2.
Rice. 2.2. Population distribution by federal districts, %
During the reform period, the population grew only in the Southern and Central Federal Districts by 11.6% and 0.2%, respectively. At the same time, if in the Southern Federal District the population increased in all subjects except the Republic of Kalmykia, then in the Central Federal District the population increased only due to the city of Moscow and the Belgorod region. A factor in the increase in population in these districts was a significant influx of population, which compensated for the natural decline.
The gender, age, ethnic, territorial and social structure of the country's population is the basis for the formation and use of labor resources.
Marriage is a socially sanctioned and regulated form of relationship between a man and a woman, defining their rights and responsibilities towards each other and their children. Historically, marriage has gone through a long, centuries-long path of development and the replacement of some of its forms by others. These historical changes are described in special historical-ethnographic and historical-sociological literature, which should be consulted by those interested in these issues1.
Speaking about marriage, it is necessary first of all to note the ambiguity of the interpretation of this concept in law and other social sciences.
From the point of view of law, marriage is considered only a free, voluntary, equal union of a man and a woman, concluded for the purpose of forming a family with mandatory compliance with the requirements established by law and generating mutual personal and property rights and obligations between spouses 2 . In our country, only a marriage entered into at the civil registry office (registry office) is recognized as valid. Mandatory state registration was established in December 1917 with the adoption of the Decree of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On civil marriage." Currently, the procedure for marriage is regulated by the Family Code of the Russian Federation, adopted in 1995.
For demography, marriage is interesting primarily as a precondition for creating a family and having children, as well as the processes of fertility and mortality.
At the same time, demography is traditionally interested not so much in the legal form of marriage as a legalized union of a man and a woman, but in the presence of valid and effective marital relations, regardless of whether the marriage is registered in accordance with the rules and laws adopted in a particular country or not, i.e. .e. actual marriage*.
In family law, de facto marriage means an officially unregistered marriage, i.e. cohabitation. This difference in the use of the same term in different sciences should be kept in mind.
At the same time, demography is also interested in the legal form of marriage, since this concept is associated with the phenomenon of out-of-wedlock births.
The presence or absence of official registration of marriage relations, their legal registration, is an extremely important indicator of the state of the family as a social institution. The increase in the number of cases of refusal to officially register marriage and the spread of cohabitation observed in recent decades indicate (together with other similar phenomena) the deepening crisis of the family, the degradation of the values of familism, the price of which is the aggravation of social ill-being, the increase in deviant forms of social behavior. And the point is not only the increase in many countries of the world (including Russia) in the number and proportion of out-of-wedlock births, although this in itself gives rise to numerous social problems associated primarily with the inadequate socialization of children from so-called “maternal” families. The very possibility of living in cohabitation, without legitimizing marriage relations, corrodes in the minds of many the value of legal marriage and family as social institutions, as the only normative forms of living together.
When it comes to marriage and marital relations, there is terminological confusion that has arisen due to the uncritical transfer of legal terminology to demography and which is not always easy to understand*. In particular, the expression actual marriage sometimes used as a synonym cohabitation, contrasting it with a registered marriage. In the same context, on the other hand, the expression is sometimes used civil marriage, meaning by it an unregistered marriage * *.
It is surprising that not only do different encyclopedic reference books interpret these concepts differently, but even within the same dictionary, in articles by different authors, you can sometimes find mutually exclusive interpretations of these terms. Until 1917, a civil marriage was understood as a marriage concluded without performing a corresponding religious ceremony (wedding, etc.).
To avoid this confusion, we should understand a civil marriage as a registered marriage, and talk about cohabitation in cases where marriage relations exist outside of a legally recognized, legitimate form. Regarding the term actual marriage, then, regardless of its use in law, outside of purely legal terminology, it should be used only to state the existence of valid and effective marital relations, regardless, I repeat, to their legal form. The contrast between an actual marriage and a registered one is based on a misunderstanding: the presence of a legal form does not mean that there are no actual marriage relations and, conversely, the presence of actual (i.e. real, valid) marriage relations does not mean that the latter are not legally formalized in any way.
Types of marriage - registered and actual - are not mutually exclusive. Most registered marriages are also de facto, and most de facto marriages are registered. However, among the registered marriages there are fictitious marriages that were legally registered not to create a family, but to acquire housing, property or other rights. Some of the registered marriages have actually already broken up, but de jure continue to exist, since the divorce has not yet been formalized. It is not uncommon for someone to be in a registered marriage with one person, but in a de facto marriage with another. Therefore, only registered and unregistered marriage can be considered as alternative types. Sinelnikov A.B. Marriage // Social Encyclopedia. M., 2000. P. 45.
Under species or forms marriage understand the specific variations of marital unions into which men and women enter or have entered. Among the types of marriage, they primarily distinguish monogamy (monogy) and polygamy (polygamy).
Monogamy, or monogamous marriage, is the marriage of one man to one woman.
Polygamy, or polygamous marriage, is the marriage of one man with several women (polygyny, or polygamy) or the marriage of one woman with several men (polyandry, or polyandry). Contrary to widespread belief, special historical and ethnographic studies have shown that polygamy (polygyny) in history was much more widespread than monogamy: according to the American sociologist J. Murdock, the number of cultures with a predominance of polygamy is almost 4 times higher than the number of those cultures where monogamy prevailed 3. Moreover, the most common form of polygamy is polygyny, which is still widely practiced in countries whose population professes Islam.
As for polyandry, or polyandry, the prevalence of this form of marriage is extremely insignificant. It exists among some peoples of India and Tibet, mainly in the form of the so-called. fraternal polyandry, those. marriage of one woman with several brothers.
The current trend is that the prevalence of polygamy is decreasing and is being replaced by monogamy. Currently, even in many Muslim countries where religious morality allows and, moreover, encourages polygyny, the latter is prohibited by law. In this regard, attempts to legalize polygamy in certain constituent entities of the Russian Federation, in particular in Ingushetia, look strange. But even more strange and comical is the attempt of Zhirinovsky and his party to pass through the State Duma a law allowing polygamy in Russia 4 .
Currently, it is becoming increasingly common so-called serial monogamy(some authors talk about serial monogamy), i.e. repeated, mainly post-divorce, marriages of men and women. This phenomenon has reached such proportions that many researchers, and even more journalists and politicians, have ceased to consider marriage as a lifelong union between a man and a woman (they have an idiosyncrasy about the word itself life), considering it as a temporary alliance that can be dissolved at any time at the request of either spouse. Both serial monogamy itself and the conciliatory attitude towards it as a normative phenomenon reflect the growing institutional crisis of the family, the consequences of which are so threateningly manifested in the modern dynamics of demographic processes.
Marriage is the result, the final stage marriage selection. Under mating selection is understood as a process as a result of which, from the totality (space) of possible, potential marriage partners (which is sometimes called marriage circle) one way or another, in one way or another, the one, in each given case, the only partner (partner), who becomes the husband (wife) or the one with whom "live together."
The marriage circle is a set of possible marriage partners.
Population. Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1994. P. 36.
The process of marriage selection is historically specific; it depends on economic, social, sociocultural and other conditions existing in society. The main features of the process of marriage choice are related to the fact that in different cultures and at different stages of historical development, both the space of possible marriage partners and the degree of freedom of individual choice are different.
In the first respect, that is, in the way the space of possible marriage partners is defined, all cultures differ in whether or not they allow remarriage.
If remarriage is not allowed, as is the case in traditional, rigid cultures, monogamy, if, in other words, a person who is or has been married and left it cannot, due to sociocultural, moral and legal prohibitions, remarry or at least count on it, then the space of possible marriage partners is formed only by those individuals who are not married or even (in a stronger version that exists in some cultures) have never been married. A person enters this space upon reaching maturity established by custom or law and leaves it upon marriage.
If repeated marriages are allowed, if allowed, in other words, serial monogamy, then the population from which the marriage partner is selected is extremely wide and includes both unmarried and married people.
The rule here is that a person, male or female, is always available for marriage, whether married or not. As the American sociologist B. Farber writes, “every person, at least theoretically, is always a potential spouse for all other persons of the opposite sex. What is important here is that the state of marriage does not in any way limit a person in the sense that he continues to remain a possible spouse in later marriages” 5 .
But in any case, a person, as already said, becomes a possible marriage partner for other people only upon reaching the marriageable age established by law or custom.
The legal age of marriage in the Russian Federation is 18 years for men and women. Local government bodies, if there are valid reasons, have the right, at the request of persons wishing to get married, to allow those who have reached the age of 16 to get married. The laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation may establish the procedure and conditions under which marriage may be permitted, as an exception, up to 16 years of age 6 .
Marriage age is the minimum marriageable age at which law or custom allows marriage. In most countries of the world, B. century. is established by law, taking into account the age of puberty, psychological and social maturity of those entering into marriage, as well as traditions, customs and other conditions of a given country. Population. Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1994. P. 34.
In our society, that is, in a society of the European, Western type, the historical tendency is to move from strict monogamy, when remarrying even in the case of widowhood was difficult (especially for women) to serial monogamy, when remarriage becomes commonplace .
For example, in Russia from 1980 to 1996, the share of those who remarried increased for men from 18.9 to 28.4%, and for women - from 17.9 to 27.8%, then, however, decreasing slightly , respectively, up to 28.0 and 26.9% in 1998. 7 Moreover, the vast majority of remarriages took place after divorce (more than 80% of all remarriages for both men and women). In the largest cities, the proportion of those remarried is even higher: for example, in Moscow in 1991, marriage was repeated for 36.4% of men and for 32.1% of women, and post-divorce accounts for 90% of remarriages of men and 88% of remarriages. women's marriages 8.
Similar data can be cited for the USA. In this country in the mid-1980s. about 46% of all marriages were repeated for at least one partner 9 .
In the second respect, that is, with regard to the degree of freedom of individual choice, there are also great differences between different societies. In some cultures, and in the past almost everywhere, marriages predominate, arranged by parents or other relatives, under whose guardianship the young people are. In others, “free” choice dominates, when its main “agents” are those entering into marriage themselves. However, in any case, marriage and the choice of a marriage partner are not arbitrary. They are subject to the action of certain factors of a cultural, social, psychological and even partly socio-biological nature*.
Marriage means, from a sociological point of view, a change in one of the social statuses that each person has, in this case a change in marital status, or marital status. Demography, as a science of population reproduction, is interested in both the mass process of formation of marriage unions (and their disintegration), i.e., the mass process of changing marital statuses - marriage rates, divorce rates, widowhood - and the distribution of the population according to marital statuses, i.e. structure. Issues of marriage structure were discussed in Chapter 3. In the following paragraphs of this chapter we will consider the main characteristics of the main component of the mass process of changing marital statuses - marriage rates and divorce rates.
25. Divorce and divorceability
summary of other presentations“Administrative-territorial division of Russia” - Economic map of the West Siberian Republic. The area of the land. Kamchatka Krai. Belgorod region. Autonomous okrugs. Main areas of specialization. West Siberian ER. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. Povolzhsky ER. Millionaire cities. Economic map of DVER. Volga-Vyatka ER. Komi-Permyak district. Mari El Republic. Consolidation of regions. Central ER. Tambov Region. Republic of Karelia.
“Administrative division of Russia” - Development of the Old Russian state. Geopolitical and economic-geographical position of the Russian Federation. Russia as a state. Russia on the economic and political map of the world. Formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Development and collapse of the Russian Empire. Formation of the territory of Russia. Municipalities in Russia. Borders of Russia. Unique and typical features of Russia.
“European part of Russia” - Specialization of the territory in the production of certain products. Republic. Testing. Economic region. Label the economic regions of the European part of Russia. Volga region. Why was an aluminum plant built in Volgograd? The area has a multi-ethnic population. Industry of specialization. Theory. Why does the industry of St. Petersburg gravitate towards the sea coast? Types of industries in the economic region.
“Economic regions of the Russian Federation” - EGP. Economic and geographical position of the Central Black Earth region. Mechanical engineering. Composition of the region. Vladimir Kolomna. Feedstock. Branches of specialization. Central Black Earth region. Stages of economic development. Geographical dictation. Obninsk Decipher the logic circuit. Statistics. Dairy and beef cattle breeding. Region. Territorial structure of settlement and economy.
“Zonation of the Russian Federation” - Area-forming factors. Dividing the territory into certain parts for ease of management. Plan of characteristics of the economic region. In geography, different zoning options are used. Mendeleev. Tatishchev. Zoning of Russia. First experiments in economic zoning of Russian territory. Division of the territory of the Russian Federation. Hierarchical or single-level areas. Each economic region.
“Russian time zones” - Moscow time. Full turn. In what time zone is Moscow located? Where a new day begins on Earth. Ratmanov Island. Is it convenient to use local time? How many time zones are there in our country? Standard time. Standard time of Omsk. The plane took off from San Francisco. Longitude difference. Igor Akinfeev, goalkeeper of the CSKA football club. Resident of Omsk. Local time in Chicago.
Federal Agency for Education
Government agency
Professional higher education
"Samara State University"
TEST
Subject: General sociology.
On the topic: Territorial and settlement structure of society.
Samara 2010
The city already represents a fact of concentration
Population, instruments of production, capital, pleasures,
needs, while in the village he observes
there is a diametrically opposite fact - isolated
ity and disunity.
The concept of the territorial and settlement structure of society.
The social sphere as the sphere of reproduction of a social person also has its own spatial aspect - the settlement of the population over a certain territory.
The term “settlement” is used in the scientific literature in two special senses: geographically - and then resettlement means the process of people settling a territory that has not yet been developed by humans, and sociologically - the distribution of people according to the places of their life, i.e. applications of their labor and residence. Settlement, understood in this way, forms the socio-spatial organization of society, its territorial settlement structure. The latter is represented, on the one hand, by local (i.e., territorially limited) collections of people - they are called territorial communities, and, on the other hand, by the relationships between these communities, called settlement relations.
The very formation of the subjects of these relations - territorial communities of people - is determined by two groups of objective circumstances: the known attachment of the population to a certain territory due to the location of places of life (work and residence), and the diverse unity of interests of the local population that is formed on this basis, which, of necessity, unites, isolating and contrasting a given local group of people with respect to other similar groups. Integrating on the basis of local local interests of persons occupying very different positions in society, territorial communities of people (in their specific forms of communities, communes, fraternities, neighborhoods, etc.) perform in a socially divided society many of the same functions of social solidarity, same as the ethnic groups discussed above. And just as in ethnic structures, the implementation of the functions of internal cohesion and solidarity is achieved here through the active opposition of the interests of one’s community to similar interests of other communities. Already Aristotle, characterizing the political life of ancient Athens, noted the particular irreconcilability of the relationships between the “parties” of the inhabitants of the coast, plain and mountains.
It is also necessary to emphasize that, being locally (territorially) limited collections of people, territorial communities do not include either the actual territory of residence or any other elements of the environment.
In terms of their internal structure, the communities under consideration are represented by two levels of spatial organization: the primary settlement, which characterizes the relations of people according to their direct settlement in places of residence and employment, and the secondary, regional, which represents the objectively established relationship of settlements, their certain community and, accordingly, a certain community people representing this region. This two-level structure of territorial communities is historical: it does not exist in primitive society, where intertribal ties rarely had any stable character; it appears in an agrarian society, but remains weakly expressed due to its decentralization. And the “two-story structure” of the territorial settlement structure of the population is fully represented only in the conditions of industrially organized societies.
Formation and development of settlement settlement systems.
The very first “floor” of the territorial settlement structure of society is also deeply historical - settlement communities that unite people directly at the place of their life and know three historical types of their organization: consanguineous, local-point and group.
In primitive society, settlement communities were communities of blood relatives, i.e. here the territorial community still coincided with the consanguineous one. During the Neolithic transformations, settlement communities lost this consanguineous basis, and in an agrarian society they became purely territorial associations of people, characterized by “pointed”, local isolation of settlement, which was also carried out in two unique forms - “settlement systems” - rural and urban.
This formal differentiation of the local-point type of settlement settlement was decisively influenced by the social division of labor that emerged during the Neolithic revolution. Already the separation of farmers from cattle breeders and the very difficult relationship between them (it is not for nothing that the biblical farmer Cain kills his shepherd brother Abel!) leads to the birth of the first cities - fortified villages of farmers. With the birth of crafts, trade, mental labor, and public administration, cities become places where these types of labor are concentrated, although in many of them agricultural employment continues for a long time. This mixture of population is clearly visible in the example of Russian medieval cities, which, as a rule, included three fairly distinct parts: the fortified Kremlin, where the authorities and the garrison were located; posad, where the trade and craft population was concentrated; settlement, with a predominantly peasant population.
Rural settlement system
But over time, a completely different system of settlement settlement becomes specific to the population associated with agricultural labor - a rural or, in other words, village settlement, which best meets the characteristics and requirements of agricultural labor. Depending on specific production and natural conditions, rural settlement can be key or sedentary, scattered or compact. The key type of rural settlement meets the conditions of grazing livestock and involves year-round migration of the population as pastures change.
Rural territorial communities that exist in conditions of increased proximity to nature, monotony of work activity, spatial dispersion, and sparse people are characterized by a number of distinctive features of their existence and the corresponding way of life and thinking of the villagers.
In general, there is increased traditionalism in lifestyle and conservatism in thinking.
To the extent that the urbanization of society took place with the development of industrialism and the corresponding reduction in the number of rural populations, the number of rural settlements is naturally decreasing everywhere. Thus, during the existence of the USSR, their number fell from 860 thousand in 1926 to a thousand in 1989 (with a reduction in the proportion of the rural population from 82 to 34%).
Urban settlement system
In the course of the evolution of an urban territorial community, its main specific feature becomes the local concentration of significant masses of the population associated primarily with non-agricultural types of labor. Hence, on the one hand, the low self-sufficiency typical of the city, increased dependence on the outside world, and, consequently, the fundamental openness to external relations, and, on the other hand, its multifunctionality, the versatility of its inherent types of labor and social activities.
The latter is associated with the main feature of the social structure of city residents - its extreme complexity, the diversity of social communities represented in the urban environment, and at the same time - their explicit or implicit segregation, i.e. a well-known spatial separation, isolation, desire, desire of persons of one or close communities to live next door to each other. This is how the “social morphology” of the city is formed, dividing it into more or less clearly defined areas and quarters of predominantly aristocratic, bourgeois, working class, professional, ethnic, racial, etc. population.
Cities of a mature industrial society are characterized by the exact opposite picture of socio-spatial settlement. Privileged sections of the population move to cottage suburbs, the city center, on the contrary, becomes the focus of the “city bottom”, the intermediate areas are inhabited by the “middle class” and workers.
In recent decades, a new trend of “gentrification” of the city has emerged, associated with the return of wealthy sections of the population to the reconstructed center.
The considered trends in the evolution of social morphology have developed in the history of the Western city. Under the conditions of socialist construction in the USSR, as part of the general course towards the formation of a socially homogeneous society, an attempt was made to overcome the specified segregation of the urban population.
The social structure of townspeople is also characterized by a constant shift in the age-sex balance of the population. In small cities, due to the departure of young people, the population of older ages significantly predominates; in large cities, the proportion of the population of middle ages and youth is disproportionately high. This, in particular, gives rise to such a specifically urban phenomenon (and associated social problems) as youth hostels. Many cities with predominantly male or female employment are characterized by corresponding imbalances in the gender composition of city residents.
In recent decades, environmental problems of urban life and the growing environmental problems of cities have attracted increasing attention. N.J. Using the example of the United States, Smelser identifies such typical “ulcers” of modern urban life as noise, traffic congestion, air pollution, problems with cleaning and recycling household waste, etc.
2.1 Territorial structure of population placement (settlement)
The structure of placement or settlement shows the distribution of residents among territorial units (settlements) with different population sizes. It is convenient to analyze the structure of population distribution or settlement using two-sided diagrams, the initial data for the construction of which are the shares of settlements or territorial units with a certain population size, as well as the proportion of the population living in settlements or units with a certain population size.
The structures of distribution (settlement) of the population of real territories (states, regions of the world, administrative units, etc.) will be transitional between the indicated theoretical options.
Cartographic methods provide great opportunities for analyzing the territorial structure of the population. At the same time, on small-scale maps, as a rule, only the supporting frame of settlement is displayed - large cities and the main transport routes connecting them. Various characteristics of the population of the territory (population density, potential of the settlement field) and the composition of the population (gender, age, ethnic, religious, etc.) are reflected only in the most generalized form - highlighting sharp differences or by large administrative units.
Medium- and especially small-scale maps make it possible to display almost all the details of the territorial organization of the population of any relatively small area - each settlement with the composition of the population in it, various connections (labor, recreational, etc.) between these points and with the surrounding territory, temporary fluctuations (annual, seasonal, weekly, daily) in the concentration of people in certain places, etc. When analyzing different maps together, patterns and relationships become clear that escape when considering individual characteristics of the population and territory.
Another special method is graph analysis. In this case, the vertices of the graphs usually serve as settlements, and the edges depict connections between settlements - the frequency of trips of residents, the intensity of telephone conversations, etc. This reveals the real zones of influence of settlements on the surrounding territory, and identifies settlement systems. At the same time, neighboring settlements may be less connected with each other than with more distant ones, or even be part of different settlement systems with a small geographical distance between them. When analyzing graphs, in contrast to cartographic analysis, mathematical methods can be widely used. In particular, it is possible to build models of optimal relationships and, on their basis, develop programs for the long-term development of the territorial organization of the population.
2.2 Main factors determining population distribution
The main factors determining the distribution of population on the Earth's surface are the following.
1. Natural conditions that are most favorable for human life and agriculture in coastal and lowland areas of temperate, subtropical and tropical climatic zones. On the contrary, the Arctic and Antarctic regions, as well as inland desert and high mountain areas, are extremely unfavorable. In the equator region, mountainous areas are more favorable than flat ones. But over time, the importance of natural conditions decreases. Socio-economic factors become the main ones.
2. Historical features of human settlement on the surface of the planet. At the same time, the initial population clumps formed near the area of origin of modern man - in Africa, Foreign Asia, Western Europe. But gradually the share of these initial outbreaks in the world population is decreasing. There is a redistribution of residents to less populated regions of the world.
3. The current stage of the demographic transition, when in some parts of the Earth there is a “population explosion”, which leads to rapid growth in population size and density, while in other parts the population is stable or declining. At the same time, migrations have a compensating effect, since they are usually directed from areas with rapid population growth to areas where the growth is less and there are conditions for population growth.
4. Level of development and prevailing structure of the economy. Initially, the dominant appropriating economy did not allow a population density of more than 1 person. by 10 km2, since more people could not feed themselves through the use of natural biocenoses. With nomadic livestock farming it was possible to achieve a density of 1 person. per 1 km2, and with the dominance of agriculture - from 10 (non-irrigated areas) to 100 or more (when using irrigation) people. per 1 km2. The industrial economy, which replaced the agricultural economy, due to the concentration of people in cities, which for their development use not only local, but also remote natural resources, as well as socio-economic factors, made it possible to increase the population density to 1000 people. per 1 km2. Under the dominance of the post-industrial economy, when people themselves become the main resource for development, it is apparently possible for the existence of areas with a population density of more than 10 thousand people. per 1 km2.
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