System of primary education for the development of junior schoolchildren. Possibilities for the intellectual development of younger schoolchildren in the process of learning in the educational complex “School of Russia”
DEVELOPMENT OF JUNIOR SCHOOL CHILDREN IN THE PROCESS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS
What is developmental education?
The term “developmental education” is actively used in psychological, pedagogical and methodological literature. However, the content of this concept still remains very problematic, and the answers to the question: “What kind of training can be called developmental?” quite contradictory. This, on the one hand, is due to the multifaceted nature of the concept of “developmental education”, and on the other hand, due to some inconsistency of the term itself, because One can hardly speak of “non-developmental education.” Undoubtedly, any training develops a child.
However, one cannot but agree that in one case, training is, as it were, built on top of development, as L.S. said. Vygotsky “lags behind” development, exerting a spontaneous influence on it; in another, he purposefully ensures it (leads development) and actively uses it to acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities. In the first case, we have the priority of the informational function of learning, in the second - the priority of the developmental function, which radically changes the structure of the learning process.
As D.B. writes Elkonin – the answer to the question of the relationship between these two processes “is complicated by the fact that the categories of training and development themselves are different.
The effectiveness of teaching, as a rule, is measured by the quantity and quality of acquired knowledge, and the effectiveness of development is measured by the level that the students’ abilities reach, i.e., by how developed the students’ basic forms of mental activity are, allowing them to quickly, deeply and correctly navigate the phenomena of the environment reality.
It has long been noted that you can know a lot, but at the same time not show any creative abilities, that is, not be able to independently understand a new phenomenon, even from a relatively well-known field of science.” .
It is no coincidence that methodologists use the term “developmental education” with great caution. Complex dynamic connections between the processes of learning and the mental development of a child are not the subject of research in methodological science, in which real, practical learning results are usually described in the language of knowledge, skills and abilities.
Since psychology studies the mental development of a child, when constructing developmental education, the methodology must undoubtedly be based on the results of research in this science. As V.V. Davydov writes, “the mental development of a person is, first of all, the formation of his activity, consciousness and, of course, all the mental processes that “serve” them (cognitive processes, emotions, etc.)” . It follows that the development of students largely depends on the activities that they perform during the learning process.
From the didactics course you know that this activity can be reproductive and productive. They are closely related, but depending on which type of activity predominates, learning has different effects on children's development.
Reproductive activity is characterized by the fact that the student receives ready-made information, perceives it, understands it, remembers it, and then reproduces it. The main goal of such activities is the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities in the student, the development of attention and memory.
Productive activity is associated with the active work of thinking and is expressed in such mental operations as analysis and synthesis, comparison, classification, analogy, generalization. These mental operations in psychological and pedagogical literature are usually called logical methods of thinking or methods of mental action.
The inclusion of these operations in the process of mastering mathematical content is one of the important conditions for building developmental education, since productive (creative) activity has a positive impact on the development of all mental functions. “... the organization of developmental education involves creating conditions for schoolchildren to master the techniques of mental activity. Mastering them not only provides a new level of assimilation, but also produces significant changes in the child’s mental development. Having mastered these techniques, students become more independent in solving educational problems and can rationally organize their activities to acquire knowledge.” .
Let's consider the possibilities of actively including various methods of mental action in the process of teaching mathematics.
3.2. Analysis and synthesis
The most important mental operations are analysis and synthesis.
Analysis is associated with the selection of elements of a given object, its characteristics or properties. Synthesis is the combination of various elements, aspects of an object into a single whole.
In human mental activity, analysis and synthesis complement each other, since analysis is carried out through synthesis, synthesis - through analysis.
The ability for analytical-synthetic activity is expressed not only in the ability to isolate the elements of an object, its various features or to combine elements into a single whole, but also in the ability to include them in new connections, to see their new functions.
The formation of these skills can be facilitated by: a) consideration of a given object from the point of view of various concepts; b) setting various tasks for a given mathematical object.
To consider this object from the point of view of various concepts, when teaching mathematics, primary schoolchildren are usually offered the following tasks:
Read the expressions 16 – 5 differently (16 is reduced by 5; the difference between the numbers 16 and 5; subtract 5 from 16).
Read the equality 15–5=10 differently (reduce 15 by 5, we get 10; 15 is greater than 10 by 5; the difference between the numbers 15 and 5 is 10;
15 – minuend, 5 – subtrahend, 10 – difference; if we add the subtrahend (5) to the difference (10), we get the minuend (15); the number 5 is less than 15 by 10).
What are different names for a square? (Rectangle, quadrilateral, polygon.)
Tell us everything you know about the number 325. (This is a three-digit number; it is written in numbers 3, 2, 5; it has 325 units, 32 tens, 3 hundreds; it can be written as a sum of digit terms like this: 300+20+5 ; it is 1 unit more than the number 324 and 1 unit less than the number 326; it can be represented as the sum of two terms, three, four, etc.)
Of course, you should not strive to ensure that every student pronounces this monologue, but, focusing on it, you can offer children questions and tasks, during which they will consider this object from different points of view.
Most often, these are tasks for classification or identifying various patterns (rules).
For example:
By what criteria can you separate buttons into two boxes?
Considering buttons from the point of view of their sizes, we will put 4 buttons in one box and 3 in another,
– in terms of color: 1 and 6,
– in terms of shape: 4 and 3.
Unravel the rule by which the table is compiled and fill in the missing cells:
Seeing that there are two rows in this table, students try to identify a certain rule in each of them, find out how much one number is less (more) than the other. To do this, they perform addition and subtraction. Having not found a pattern in either the top or bottom row, they try to analyze this table from a different point of view, comparing each number in the top row with the corresponding (below) number in the bottom row. Get: 4 8 to 1; 3>2 by 1. If under the number 8 we write the number 9, and under the number 6 – the number 7, then we have:
8 P for 1, P>4 for 1.
Similarly, you can compare each number in the bottom line with the corresponding (standing above it) number in the top line.
Such tasks with geometric material are possible.
Find the segment BC. What can you tell us about him? (BC – side of the triangle ALL; BC – side of the triangleDBC; Sun less thanDC; BC is less than AB; BC – side of the angleBCDand angle ALL).
How many segments are there in this drawing? How many triangles? How many polygons?
Consideration of mathematical objects from the point of view of various concepts is a way to compose variable tasks. Let’s take, for example, the following task: “Let’s write down all the even numbers from 2 to 20 and all the odd numbers from 1 to 19.” The result of its execution is the recording of two series of numbers:
2, 4, 6, 8, 10,12,14,16,18,20 1,3,5,7,9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19
Now we use these mathematical objects to compose tasks:
Divide the numbers in each series into two groups so that each contains numbers that are similar to each other.
What is the rule for writing the first row? Continue it.
What numbers need to be crossed out in the first row so that each next one is 4 more than the previous one?
Is it possible to do this task for the second row?
Choose pairs of numbers from the first row whose difference is 10
(2 and 12, 4 and 14, 6 and 16, 8 and 18, 10 and 20).
Select pairs of numbers from the second row whose difference is 10 (1 and 11, 3 and 13, 5 and 15, 7 and 17, 9 and 19).
Which pair is “extra”? (10 and 20, there are two two-digit numbers in it, in all other pairs there is a two-digit number and a single-digit number).
Find in the first row the sum of the first and last numbers, the sum of the second numbers from the beginning and from the end of the series, the sum of the third numbers from the beginning and from the end of the series. How are these amounts similar?
Do the same task for the second row. How are the amounts received similar?
Task 80. Come up with tasks during which students will examine the objects given in them from different points of view.
3.3. Method of comparison
The technique of comparison plays a special role in organizing the productive activities of younger schoolchildren in the process of learning mathematics. The formation of the ability to use this technique should be carried out step by step, in close connection with the study of specific content. It is advisable, for example, to focus on the following stages:
highlighting features or properties of one object;
establishing similarities and differences between the characteristics of two objects;
identifying similarities between the characteristics of three, four or more objects.
Since it is better to begin the work of developing a logical method of comparison in children from the first lessons of mathematics, then as objects you can first use objects or drawings depicting objects that are familiar to them, in which they can identify certain features, based on the ones they have representation.
To organize student activities aimed at identifying the characteristics of a particular object, you can first ask the following question:
– What can you tell us about the subject? (The apple is round, large, red; the pumpkin is yellow, large, with stripes, with a tail; the circle is large, green; the square is small, yellow).
During the work, the teacher introduces children to the concepts of “size”, “shape” and asks them the following questions:
– What can you say about the sizes (shapes) of these objects? (Big, small, round, like a triangle, like a square, etc.)
To identify the signs or properties of an object, the teacher usually turns to children with questions:
– What are the similarities and differences between these items? - What changed?
It is possible to introduce them to the term “feature” and use it when performing tasks: “Name the characteristics of an object,” “Name similar and different characteristics of objects.”
Task 81. Select different pairs of objects and images that you can offer to first-graders so that they can establish the similarities and differences between them. Come up with illustrations for the task “What has changed...”.
Students transfer the ability to identify features and, based on them, to compare objects to mathematical objects.
V Name the signs:
a) expressions 3+2 (numbers 3, 2 and the “+” sign);
b) expressions 6–1 (numbers 6, 1 and the sign “–”);
c) the equality x+5=9 (x is an unknown number, numbers 5, 9, signs “+” and “=”).
Based on these external signs, accessible to perception, children can establish similarities and differences between mathematical objects and comprehend these signs from the point of view of various concepts.
For example:
What are the similarities and differences:
a) expressions: 6+2 and 6–2; 9 4 and 9 5; 6+(7+3) and (6+7)+3;
b) numbers: 32 and 45; 32 and 42; 32 and 23; 1 and 11; 2 and 12; 111 and 11; 112 and 12, etc.;
c) equalities: 4+5=9 and 5+4=9; 3 8=24 and 8 3=24; 4 (5+3)=32 and 4 5+4 3 = = 32; 3 (7 10) = 210 and (3 7) 10 = 210;
d) task texts:
Kolya caught 2 fish, Petya - 6. How many more fish did Petya catch than Kolya?
Kolya caught 2 fish, Petya - b. How many times more fish did Petya catch than Kolya? e) geometric figures:
f) equations: 3 + x = 5 and x+3 = 5; 10–x=6 and (7+3)–x=6;
12 – x = 4 and (10 + 2) – x = 3 + 1;
g) computational techniques:
9+6=(9+1)+5 and 6+3=(6+2)+1
L L
1+5 2+1
The comparison technique can be used when introducing students to new concepts. For example:
How are they all similar to each other?
a) numbers: 50, 70, 20, 10, 90 (tens place);
b) geometric figures (quadrangles);
c) mathematical notations: 3+2, 13+7, 12+25 (expressions called sums).
Task 82. Make up mathematical expressions from the given data:
9+4, 520–1.9 4, 4+9, 371, 520 1, 33, 13 1,520:1,333, 173, 9+1, 520+1, 222, 13:1 different pairs in which children can identify signs of similarities and differences. When studying which questions of a primary school mathematics course can each of your assignments be suggested?
In teaching primary schoolchildren, a large role is given to exercises that involve the translation of “subject actions” into the language of mathematics. In these exercises they usually correlate Object and symbolic objects. For example:
a) Which picture corresponds to the entries 2*3, 2+3?
b) Which picture corresponds to the entry 3 5? If there is no such picture, then draw it.
c) Complete the drawings corresponding to these entries: 3*7, 4 2+4*3, 3+7.
Task 83. Come up with various exercises for correlating subject and symbolic objects that can be offered to students when studying the meaning of addition, division, multiplication tables, division with a remainder.
The indicator of the formed™ method of comparison is the ability of children to independently use it to solve various problems, without instructions: “compare..., indicate the signs..., what are the similarities and differences...”.
Here are specific examples of such tasks:
a) Remove the sticky object... (When doing this, schoolchildren are guided by the similarities and differences of signs.)
b) Arrange the numbers in ascending order: 12, 9, 7, 15, 24, 2. (To complete this task, students must identify signs of differences between these numbers.)
c) The sum of the numbers in the first column is 74. How to find the sum of the numbers without performing addition in the second and third columns:
21 22 23
30 31 32
11 12 13
12 13 14 74
d)) Continue the series of numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, ...; 1, 5, 9, 13, ... (The basis for establishing a pattern (rule) for writing numbers is also a comparison operation.)
Task 84. Show the possibility of using the comparison technique when studying addition of single-digit numbers within 20, addition and subtraction within 100, rules for the order of actions, as well as when introducing primary schoolchildren to rectangles and squares.
3.4. Classification method
The ability to identify the characteristics of objects and establish similarities and differences between them is the basis of classification.
From a mathematics course we know that when dividing a set into classes, the following conditions must be met: 1) none of the subsets is empty; 2) the subsets do not intersect pairwise;
3) the union of all subsets constitutes this set. When offering classification tasks to children, these conditions must be taken into account. Just as when developing the method of comparison, children first perform tasks to classify well-known objects and geometric figures. For example:
Students examine objects: cucumber, tomato, cabbage, hammer, onion, beetroot, radish. Focusing on the concept of “vegetable,” they can divide many objects into two classes: vegetables - non-vegetables.
Task 85. Come up with exercises of various contents with the instructions “Remove the extra object” or “Name the extra object”, which you could offer to students in 1st, 2nd, 3rd grade.
The ability to perform classification is developed in schoolchildren in close connection with the study of specific content. For example, for counting exercises, they are often given illustrations to which they can pose questions beginning with the word “How much...?” Let's look at the picture and ask the following questions:
- How many big circles? Little ones? Blue? Red? Big red ones? Little blue ones?
By practicing counting, students master the logical technique of classification.
Tasks related to the method of classification are usually formulated in the following form: “Divide (split) all the circles into two groups according to some criterion.”
Most children successfully complete this task, focusing on features such as color and size. As you learn different concepts, classification tasks may include numbers, expressions, equalities, equations, and geometric shapes. For example, when studying the numbering of numbers within 100, you can offer the following task:
Divide these numbers into two groups so that each contains similar numbers:
a) 33, 84, 75, 22, 13, 11, 44, 53 (one group includes numbers written with two identical digits, the other with different ones);
b) 91, 81, 82, 95, 87, 94, 85 (the basis of the classification is the number of tens, in one group of numbers it is 8, in another – 9);
c) 45, 36, 25, 52, 54, 61, 16, 63, 43, 27, 72, 34 (the basis of the classification is the sum of the “digits” with which these numbers are written, in one group it is 9, in another – 7 ).
If the task does not indicate the number of partition groups, then various options are possible. For example: 37, 61, 57, 34, 81, 64, 27 (these numbers can be divided into three groups, if you focus on the numbers written in the units place, and into two groups, if you focus on the numbers written in the tens place. Possible and another group).
Task 86. Make classification exercises that you could offer children to learn the numbering of five-digit and six-digit numbers.
When studying addition and subtraction of numbers within 10, the following classification tasks are possible:
Divide these expressions into groups according to some criteria:
a) 3+1, 4–1, 5+1, 6–1, 7+1, 8 – 1. (In this case, children can easily find the basis for dividing into two groups, since the attribute is presented explicitly in the expression record.)
But you can choose other expressions:
b) 3+2, 6–3, 4+5, 9–2, 4+1, 7 – 2, 10 – 1, 6+1, 3+4. (By dividing this set of expressions into groups, students can focus not only on the sign of the arithmetic operation, but also on the result.)
When starting new tasks, children usually first focus on the signs that occurred when performing previous tasks. In this case, it is useful to specify the number of split groups. For example, for the expressions: 3+2, 4+1, 6+1, 3+4, 5+2, you can offer a task in the following formulation: “Divide the expressions into three groups according to some criterion.” Students, naturally, first focus on the sign of the arithmetic operation, but then the division into three groups does not work. They begin to focus on results, but they also end up with only two Groups. During the search, it turns out that it is possible to divide into three groups, focusing on the value of the second term (2, 1, 4).
A computational technique can also serve as a basis for dividing expressions into groups. For this purpose, you can use a task of this type: “On what basis can these expressions be divided into two groups: 57+4, 23+4, 36+2, 75+2, 68+4, 52+7.76+7.44 +3.88+6, 82+6?”
If students cannot see the necessary basis for classification, then the teacher helps them as follows: “In one group I will write the following expression: 57 + 4,” he says, “in another: 23 + 4. In which group will you write the expression 36+9?” If in this case the children find it difficult, then the teacher can give them a reason: “What computational technique do you use to find the meaning of each expression?”
Classification tasks can be used not only for productive consolidation of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also when introducing students to new concepts. For example, to define the concept of “rectangle” to a set of geometric shapes located on a flannelgraph, you can offer the following sequence of tasks and questions:
Remove the “extra” figure. (Children remove the triangle and actually divide the set of shapes into two groups, focusing on the number of sides and angles in each shape.)
How are all the other figures similar? (They have 4 angles and 4 sides) V What can you call all these shapes? (Quadrangles.)
Show quadrilaterals with one right angle (6 and 5). (To test their guess, students use a model of a right angle, applying it appropriately to the indicated figure.)
Show quadrilaterals: a) with two right angles (3 and 10);
b) with three right angles (there are none); c) with four right angles (2, 4, 7, 8, 9).
Divide the quadrilaterals into groups according to the number of right angles (1st group - 5 and 6, 2nd group - 3 and 10, 3rd group - 2, 4, 7, 8, 9).
The quadrangles are laid out accordingly on the flannelgraph. The third group includes quadrilaterals in which all angles are right. These are rectangles.
Thus, when teaching mathematics, you can use classification tasks of various types:
1. Preparatory tasks. These include: “Remove (name) the “extra” object”, “Draw objects of the same color (shape, size)”, “Give a name to the group of objects.” This also includes tasks for developing attention and observation:
“What item was removed?” and “What has changed?”
2. Tasks in which the teacher indicates the basis of the classification.
3. Tasks in which children themselves identify the basis of classification.
Activity 87. Create different types of classification tasks that you could give students when learning about geometry, division with a remainder, computational techniques for oral multiplication and division within 100, and also when introducing the square.
3.5. Technique of analogy
The concept of “analogous” translated from Greek means “similar”, “corresponding”, the concept of analogy is similarity in any respect between objects, phenomena, concepts, methods of action.
In the process of teaching mathematics, the teacher quite often tells the children: “Do it by analogy” or “This is a similar task.” Typically, such instructions are given with the aim of securing certain actions (operations). For example, after considering the properties of multiplying a sum by a number, various expressions are proposed:
(3+5) 2, (5+7) 3, (9+2) *4, etc., with which actions similar to this example are performed.
But another option is also possible when, using an analogy, students find new ways of activity and test their guess. In this case, they themselves must see the similarity between objects in some respects and independently make a guess about the similarity in other respects, i.e., draw a conclusion by analogy. But in order for students to be able to make a “guess,” it is necessary to organize their activities in a certain way. For example, students learned an algorithm for written addition of two-digit numbers. Moving on to the written addition of three-digit numbers, the teacher asks them to find the meanings of the expressions: 74+35, 68+13, 54+29, etc. After this, he asks: “Who can guess how to add these numbers: 254+129?” It turns out that in the cases considered, two numbers were added, the same is proposed in the new case. When adding two-digit numbers, they were written one under the other, focusing on their bit composition, and added bit by bit. A guess arises - it’s probably possible to add three-digit numbers in the same way. The teacher can give a conclusion about the correctness of the guess or invite the children to compare the actions performed with the model.
Inference by analogy can also be used when moving on to written addition and subtraction of multi-digit numbers, comparing it with addition and subtraction of three-digit numbers.
Inference by analogy can be used when studying the properties of arithmetic operations. In particular, the commutative property of multiplication. For this purpose, students are first asked to find the meanings of the expressions:
6+3 7+4 8+4 3+6 4+7 4+8
– What property did you use when completing the task? (Commutative property of addition).
– Think about it: how do you determine whether the commutative property holds for multiplication?
By analogy, students write down pairs of products and find the value of each, replacing the product with the sum.
To make a correct inference by analogy, it is necessary to identify the essential features of objects, otherwise the conclusion may turn out to be incorrect. For example, some students try to apply the method of multiplying a number by a sum when multiplying a number by a product. This suggests that the essential property of this expression - multiplication by a sum - was outside their field of vision.
When developing in younger schoolchildren the ability to make inferences by analogy, it is necessary to keep in mind the following:
Analogy is based on comparison, so the success of its application depends on how well students are able to identify the characteristics of objects and establish the similarities and differences between them.
To use an analogy, you must have two objects, one of which is known, the second is compared with it according to some characteristics. Hence, the use of analogy helps to repeat what has been learned and systematize knowledge and skills.
To orient schoolchildren to the use of analogy, it is necessary to explain to them the essence of this technique in an accessible form, drawing their attention to the fact that in mathematics a new method of action can often be discovered by guessing, remembering and analyzing a known method of action and a given new task.
For correct actions, the characteristics of objects that are significant in a given situation are compared by analogy. Otherwise the output may be incorrect.
Task 88. Give examples of inferences by analogy that can be used when studying algorithms for written multiplication and division.
3.6. Generalization technique
Identification of essential features of mathematical objects, their properties and relationships is the main characteristic of such a method of mental action as generalization.
It is necessary to distinguish between the result and the process of generalization. The result is recorded in concepts, judgments, rules. The process of generalization can be organized in different ways. Depending on this, they speak of two types of generalization – theoretical and empirical.
In elementary mathematics courses, the empirical type is most often used, in which generalization of knowledge is the result of inductive reasoning (inferences).
Translated into Russian, “induction” means “guidance,” therefore, using inductive reasoning, students can independently “discover” mathematical properties and methods of action (rules), which are strictly proven in mathematics.
To obtain a correct generalization inductively it is necessary:
1) think over the selection of mathematical objects and the sequence of questions for targeted observation and comparison;
2) consider as many private objects as possible in which the pattern that students should notice is repeated;
3) vary the types of particular objects, i.e. use subject situations, diagrams, tables, expressions, reflecting the same pattern in each type of object;
4) help children verbally formulate their observations by asking leading questions, clarifying and correcting the formulations that they offer.
Let's look at a specific example of how the above recommendations can be implemented. In order to lead students to the formulation of the commutative property of multiplication, the teacher offers them the following tasks:
Look at the picture and try to quickly calculate how many windows there are in the house.
Children can suggest the following methods: 3+3+3+3, 4+4+4 or 3*4=12; 4*3=12.
The teacher suggests comparing the obtained equalities, i.e., identifying their similarities and differences. It is noted that both products are the same, and the factors are rearranged.
Students perform a similar task with a rectangle, which is divided into squares. The result is 9*3=27; 3*9=27 and verbally describe the similarities and differences that exist between the written equalities.
Students are asked to work independently: find the meanings of the following expressions, replacing multiplication with addition:
3*2 4*2 3*6 4*5 5*3 8*4 2*3 2*4 6*3 5*4 3*5 4*8
It turns out how the equalities in each column are similar and different. Answers can be: “The factors are the same, they are rearranged,” “The products are the same,” or “The factors are the same, they are rearranged, the products are the same.”
The teacher helps formulate the property with a guiding question: “If the factors are rearranged, what can be said about the product?”
Conclusion: “If the factors are rearranged, the product will not change” or “The value of the product will not change if the factors are rearranged.”
Task 89. Select a sequence of tasks that can be used to perform inductive inferences when studying:
a) the rules “If the product of two numbers is divided by one factor, we get another”:
b) the commutative property of addition;
c) the principle of the formation of a natural series of numbers (if we add one to a number, we get the next number when counting; if we subtract 1, we get the previous number);
d) relationships between the dividend, divisor and quotient;
e) conclusions: “the sum of two consecutive numbers is an odd number”; “if you subtract the previous one from the subsequent number, you get I”; “the product of two consecutive numbers is divided by 2”; “If you add to any number and then subtract the same number from it, you get the original number.”
Describe the work with these tasks, taking into account the methodological requirements for the use of inductive reasoning when learning new material.
When developing in younger schoolchildren the ability to generalize observed facts inductively, it is useful to offer tasks in which they may make incorrect generalizations.
Let's look at a few examples:
Compare the expressions, find the commonality in the resulting inequalities and
draw the appropriate conclusions:
2+3 ...2*3 4+5...4*5 3+4...3*4 5+6...5*6
Comparing these expressions and noting the patterns: the sum is written on the left, the product of two consecutive numbers on the right; the sum is always less than the product, most children conclude: “the sum of two consecutive numbers is always less than the product.” But the generalization expressed is erroneous, since the following cases are not taken into account:
0+1 ...0*1
1+2... 1*2
You can try to make a correct generalization, which will take into account certain conditions: “the sum of two consecutive numbers, starting with the number 2, is always less than the product of these same numbers.”
Find the amount. Compare it with each term. Draw the appropriate conclusion.
Term
Based on the analysis of the considered special cases, students come to the conclusion that: “the sum is always greater than each of the terms.” But it can be refuted, since: 1+0=1, 2+0=2. In these cases, the sum is equal to one of the terms.
V Check whether each term is divisible by 2 and draw a conclusion.
(2+4):2=3 (4+4):2=4 (6+2):2=4 (6+8):2=7 (8+10):2=9
Analyzing the proposed special cases, children can come to the conclusion that: “if the sum of numbers is divisible by 2, then each term of this sum is divisible by 2.” But this conclusion is erroneous, since it can be refuted: (1+3):2. Here the sum is divided by 2, each term is not divisible.
Task 90. Using the content of the elementary mathematics course, come up with tasks in which students can make incorrect inductive conclusions.
Most psychologists, teachers and methodologists believe that empirical generalization, which is based on the action of comparison, is most accessible to younger schoolchildren. This, in fact, determines the construction of a mathematics course in primary school.
By comparing mathematical objects or methods of action, the child identifies their external common properties, which can become the content of the concept. However, focusing on the external, perceptible properties of the compared mathematical objects does not always allow one to reveal the essence of the concept being studied or to assimilate the general method of action. When making empirical generalizations, students often focus on unimportant properties of objects and on specific situations. This has a negative impact on the formation of concepts and general methods of action. For example, when forming the concept of “more by,” the teacher usually offers a series of specific situations that differ from each other only in numerical characteristics. In practice, it looks like this: children are asked to put three red circles in a row, put the same number of blue ones under them, then find out how to make the number of circles in the bottom row increase by 2 (add 2 circles). Then the teacher suggests putting 5 (4,6,7 ...) circles in the first row, and 3 (2,5,4 ...) more in the second row. It is assumed that as a result of completing such tasks, the child will form the concept of “more by”, which will find its expression in the method of action: “take the same amount and more...”. But, as practice shows, the focus of students’ attention in this case, first of all, remains various numerical characteristics, and not the general method of action itself. Indeed, having completed the first task, the student can only draw a conclusion about how to “do more by 2” by completing the following tasks - “how to do more by 3 (by 4, by 5)”, etc. As a result, the generalized verbal the formulation of the method of action: “you need to take the same amount and more” is given by the teacher, and most children learn the concept of “more by” only as a result of performing monotonous training exercises. Therefore, they are able to perform certain reasoning only within a given specific situation and on a limited range of numbers.
Unlike empirical, theoretical generalization is carried out by analyzing data about any one object or situation in order to identify significant internal connections. These connections are immediately fixed abstractly (theoretically - with the help of words, signs, diagrams) and become the basis on which private (concrete) actions are subsequently carried out.
A necessary condition for the formation of the ability for theoretical generalization in younger schoolchildren is the focus of education on the formation of general methods of activity. To fulfill this condition, it is necessary to think through such actions with mathematical objects, as a result of which children will be able to “discover” the essential properties of the concepts being studied and the general ways of acting with them.
The development of this issue at the methodological level presents a certain difficulty. At present, this is one of the most pressing problems of primary education, the solution of which is associated both with a change in content and with a change in the organization of educational activities of primary schoolchildren, aimed at mastering it.
Significant changes have been made to the course of elementary mathematics (V.V. Davydov), the goal of which is to develop children's ability to make theoretical generalizations. They relate to both its content and ways of organizing activities. The basis of theoretical generalizations in this course is substantive actions with quantities (length, volume), as well as various techniques for modeling these actions using geometric figures and symbols. This creates certain conditions for making theoretical generalizations. Let's consider a specific situation that is associated with the formation of the concept “more on.” Students are offered two jars. One (first) is filled with water, the other (second) is empty. The teacher suggests finding a way to solve the following problem: how to make sure that the second jar of water contains this glass (shows a glass of water) more than the first? As a result of discussing various proposals, the conclusion is drawn: you need to pour water from the first jar into the second, that is, pour into the second the same amount of water as was poured into the first jar, and then pour another glass of water into the second. The created situation allows the children to find the necessary method of action themselves, and the teacher to focus on the essential feature of the concept “more by,” i.e., to direct students to master the general method of action: “the same and more.”
The use of quantities to develop generalized methods of action in schoolchildren is one of the possible options for constructing an initial mathematics course. But the same problem can be solved by performing various actions and with many objects. Examples of such situations are reflected in the articles of G. G. Mikulina .
She advises using a situation with multiple objects to form the concept of “more on”: children are offered a pack of red cards. You need to fold a pack of green cards so that it contains this much more (a pack of blue cards is shown) than a pack of red cards. Condition: cards cannot be counted.
Using the method of establishing a one-to-one correspondence, students lay out as many cards in the green pack as there are in the red pack, and add another third pack (of blue cards) to it.
Along with empirical and theoretical generalizations, generalizations-agreements take place in a mathematics course. Examples of such generalizations are the rules of multiplication by 1 and by 0, which are valid for any number. They are usually accompanied by explanations:
“in mathematics it is agreed...”, “in mathematics it is generally accepted...”.
Task 91. Using the content of the elementary mathematics course, come up with situations for theoretical and empirical generalization when studying any concept, property or method of action.
3.7. Ways to substantiate the truth of judgments
An indispensable condition for developmental education is the formation in students of the ability to substantiate (prove) the judgments that they express. In practice, this ability is usually associated with the ability to reason and prove one’s point of view.
Judgments can be single: in them something is affirmed or denied regarding one object. For example: “The number 12 is even; square ABCD has no sharp corners; the equation 23 – x = 30 has no solution (within the primary grades), etc.”
In addition to individual judgments, there are private and general judgments. In particulars, something is affirmed or denied regarding a certain set of objects from a given class or regarding a certain subset of a given set of objects. For example: “The equation x – 7 = 10 is solved based on the relationship between the minuend, the subtrahend, and the difference.” In this judgment we are talking about an equation of a particular type, which is a subset of the set of all equations studied in primary grades.
In general judgments, something is affirmed or denied regarding all objects of a given set. For example:
"In a rectangle, opposite sides are equal." Here we are talking about anyone, i.e. about all rectangles. Therefore, the judgment is general, although the word “all” is absent in this sentence. Any equation in the primary grades is solved on the basis of the relationship between the results and the components of arithmetic operations. This is also a general proposition, since it covers all kinds of equations found in elementary school mathematics courses.
Sentences expressing judgments can be different in form: affirmative, negative, conditional (for example: “if a number ends in zero, then it is divisible by 10”).
As is known, in mathematics, all propositions, with the exception of the initial ones, as a rule, are proven deductively. The essence of deductive reasoning comes down to the fact that, on the basis of some general judgment about objects of a given class and some individual judgment about a given object, a new individual judgment about the same object is expressed. It is customary to call a general judgment a general premise, the first individual judgment a particular premise, and a new individual judgment a conclusion. Let, for example, you need to solve the equation: 7*x=14. To find an unknown factor, the rule is used: “If the value of the product is divided by one factor (known), we get another (the value of the unknown factor).”
This rule (general judgment) is a general premise. In this equation, the product is 14, the known factor is 7. This is a particular premise.
Conclusion: “you need to divide 14 by 7, we get 2.” The peculiarity of deductive reasoning in the elementary grades is that they are used in an implicit form, i.e., the general and particular premises are in most cases omitted (not spoken out), students immediately begin an action that corresponds to the conclusion.
Therefore, in fact, it seems that deductive reasoning is absent in the primary school mathematics course.
To consciously carry out deductive inferences, a lot of preparatory work is required, aimed at mastering the conclusion, patterns, properties in general, associated with the development of students’ mathematical speech. For example, quite a long work on mastering the principle of constructing a natural series of numbers allows students to master the rule:
“If you add 1 to any number, you get the next number; If we subtract 1 from any number, we get the number preceding it.”
By compiling tables P+1 and P – 1, the student actually uses this rule as a general premise, thereby performing deductive reasoning. An example of deductive reasoning in primary mathematics teaching is the following reasoning:
"4
Deductive reasoning occurs in elementary mathematics and in calculating the meaning of expressions. The rules for the order of performing actions in expressions act as a general premise; as a particular premise, a specific numerical expression is used, when finding the value of which students are guided by the rule for the order of performing actions.
An analysis of school practice allows us to conclude that all methodological possibilities are not always used to develop students’ reasoning skills. For example, when performing a task:
Compare expressions by putting a sign<.>or = to get the correct entry:
6+3 ... 6+2 6+4 ... 4+6
Students prefer to replace reasoning with calculations:
"6+2 . She offered the children two sheets of paper, on one of which general premises were written, on the other – private ones. It is necessary to establish which general premise each particular one corresponds to. Students are given instructions: “You must complete each task on sheet 2 without resorting to calculations, but only using one of the rules written on sheet 1.”
Task 92. Following the instructions above, complete this task.
Sheet 1
1. If the minuend is increased by several units without changing the subtrahend, then the difference will increase by the same number of units.
2. If the divisor is reduced several times without changing the dividend, then the quotient will increase by the same amount.
3. If one of the terms is increased by several units without changing the other, then the sum will increase by the same number of units.
4. If each term is divisible by a given number, then the sum will also be divided by this number.
5. If we subtract the number preceding it from a given number, we get...
Sheet 2
The tasks are arranged in a different sequence than the parcels.
1. Find the difference between 84 – 84, 32 – 31, 54 – 53.
2. Name the sums that are divisible by 3: 9+27, 6+9, 5+18, 12+24, 3+4, "+6.
3. Compare expressions and put signs<.>or = :
125–87 ... 127–87 246–93 ... 249–93 584–121... 588– 121
4. Compare the expressions and put the signs or =:
304:8 ... 3044 243:9 ... 243:3 1088:4 . . 1088:2
5. How to quickly find the sum in each column:
9999 12 15 12 16 30 30 32 32 40 40 40 40 Answer: 91.
Thus, deductive reasoning can be one of the ways to substantiate the truth of judgments in the initial mathematics course. Considering that they are not available to all primary schoolchildren, other methods of substantiating the truth of judgments are used in the primary grades, which in a strict sense cannot be classified as evidence. These include experimentation, calculations and measurements.
An experiment usually involves the use of visualization and objective actions. For example, a child can justify the judgment 7 > 6 by placing 7 circles in one row, with 6 underneath it. Having established a one-to-one correspondence between the circles of the first and second row, he actually substantiates his judgment (in the first row there is one circle without a pair, “an extra ", which means 7>6). The child can turn to objective actions to justify the truth of the result obtained when adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing, when answering the questions: “How much is one number more (less) than another?”, “How many times is one number more (less) than another ?. Subject actions can be replaced by graphic drawings and drawings. For example, to justify the result of division 7:3=2 (remaining 1), he can use the following figure:
To develop in students the ability to substantiate their judgments, it is useful to offer them tasks to choose a method of action (both methods can be: a) correct, b) incorrect, c) one is correct, the other is incorrect). In this case, each proposed way to complete a task can be considered as a judgment, to justify which students must use various methods of evidence.
For example, when studying the topic “Area Units,” students are offered the task (M2I):
How many times is the area of rectangle ABCD greater than rectangle KMEO? Write your answer as a numerical equation.
Masha wrote down the following equalities: 15:3=5, 30:6=5.
Misha – this is the equality: 60:12=5.
Which one is right? How did Misha and Masha reason?
To substantiate the judgments expressed by Misha and Masha, students can use both the method of deductive reasoning, where the rule of multiple comparison of numbers acts as a general premise, and practical one. In this case, they rely on the given figure.
When proposing a way to solve a problem, students also make judgments, using the mathematical content given in the plot of the problem to prove them. The method of selecting ready-made judgments activates this activity. Examples of tasks include:
On the first day, tourists walked 18 km; on the second day, moving at the same speed, they walked 27 km. At what speed did the tourists walk if they spent 9 hours on the entire journey?
Misha wrote down the solution to the problem as follows:
1) 18:9=2 (km/h)
2) 27:9=3 (km/h)
3) 2+3=5 (km/h) Masha – like this:
1) 18+27=45 (km)
2) 45:9=5 (km/h) Which one is right: Misha or Masha?
How many potatoes were collected from 10 bushes, if from three bushes there were 7 potatoes, from four bushes 9, from six to 8, and from seven bushes 4 potatoes? Masha solved the problem like this:
1)7*3=21 (k.)
2) 4*7=28 (k.)
3) 21+28=49 (k.) Answer: 49 potatoes were collected from 10 bushes. And Misha solved the problem like this:
1)9 4=36 (k.)
2) 8*6=48 (k.)
3) 36+48=84 (k.) Answer: 84 potatoes were collected from 10 bushes. Which one is right?
The process of completing any task should always represent a chain of judgments (general, particular, individual), to justify the truth of which students use various methods.
Let's show this using an example of tasks:
V Insert the numbers into the “boxes” to get the correct equations:
P: 6 = 27054 P:7 = 4083 (rest. 4)
Students express a general judgment: “if we multiply the value of the quotient by the divisor, we get the dividend.” Particular judgment: “the value of the quotient is 27054, the divisor is b.” Conclusion:
"27054*6".
Now the written multiplication algorithm acts as a general premise, the result is found: 162324. The judgment is expressed: 162324: 6 = 27054.
The truth of this judgment can be verified by performing division with a corner or using a calculator.
Do the same with the second entry.
Make up correct equalities using the numbers: 6, 7, 8, 48, 56.
Students make judgments:
6*8=48 (justification – calculations) 56 – 48=8 (justification – calculations)
8*6=48 (to substantiate the judgment, you can use the general premise: “the value of the product will not change by rearranging the factors”).
48:8 = 6 (a general premise is also possible, etc.)" Thus, in most cases, to justify the truth of judgments in the initial course of mathematics, students turn to calculations and deductive reasoning. Thus, justifying the result when solving an example on the order of action, they use a general premise in the form of a rule for the order of actions, then perform calculations.
Measurement as a way to substantiate the truth of judgments is usually used in the study of quantities and geometric material. For example, children can justify the judgments: “the blue segment is longer than the red one,” “the sides of the quadrilateral are equal,” “one side of the rectangle is larger than the other” by measurement.
Task 93. Describe ways to justify the truth of judgments. expressed by students when completing the following tasks. When studying what questions in a primary school mathematics course it is advisable to offer these tasks 9
9*7+9+5 8*6+8+3 7*9+9+5 8*7+3 9*8+5 7*8+3
Is it possible to say that the meanings of the expressions in each column are the same:
12*5 16*4 (8+4)*5 (8+8)*4 (7+5)*5 (9+7)*4 (10+2)*5 (10+6)*4
Insert signs or = to make the correct entries:
(14+8)*3 ... 14*3+8*3 (27+8)*6 ...27*6+8 (36+4)*18 ...40*18 .
What action signs need to be inserted into the “windows” to get the correct equalities
8*8=8P7P8 8*3=8P4P8 8*6=6P8P0 8*5=8P0P32
Is it possible to say that the meanings of the expressions in each column are the same:
8*(4*6) (9*3)*3 8*24 2*27 (8*4)*6 9*(3*2) 6*32 (2*3)*9
3.8. The relationship between logical and algorithmic thinking of schoolchildren
The ability to consistently, clearly and consistently express one’s thoughts is closely related to the ability to present a complex action in the form of an organized sequence of simple ones. This skill is called algorithmic. It finds its expression in the fact that a person, seeing the final goal, can create an algorithmic prescription or algorithm (if it exists), as a result of which the goal will be achieved.
Drawing up algorithmic instructions (algorithms) is a complex task, so an initial mathematics course does not aim to solve it. But he can and should take upon himself some preparation for achieving it, thereby contributing to the development of logical thinking in schoolchildren.
To do this, starting from the 1st grade, it is necessary, first of all, to teach children to “see” algorithms and to understand the algorithmic essence of the actions that they perform. This work should begin with the simplest algorithms that are accessible and understandable to them. You can create an algorithm for crossing a street with an uncontrolled and controlled intersection, algorithms for using various household appliances, preparing a dish (cooking recipe), presenting the path from home to school, from school to the nearest bus stop, etc. in the form of sequential operations.
The method for preparing a coffee drink is written on the box and is the following algorithm:
1. Pour a glass of hot water into the pan.
2. Take a teaspoon of the drink.
3. Pour (pour) the coffee drink into a pan of water.
4. Heat the contents of the pan to a boil.
5. Let the drink settle.
6. Pour the drink into a glass.
When considering such instructions, the term “algorithm” itself can not be introduced, but we can talk about rules in which points are highlighted indicating certain actions, as a result of which the task is solved.
It should be noted that the term “algorithm” itself can only be used conditionally, since those rules and regulations that are discussed in the primary school mathematics course do not have all the properties that characterize it. Algorithms in elementary grades do not describe the sequence of actions using a specific example in a general form; they do not reflect all the operations that are part of the actions being performed, so their sequence is not strictly defined. For example, the sequence of actions when multiplying numbers ending in zeros by a single-digit number (800*4) is performed as follows:
1. Let's imagine the first factor as a product of a single-digit number and a unit ending in zeros: (8*100) 4;
2. Let’s use the associative property of multiplication:
(8*100)*4 =8 *(100*4);
3. Let's use the commutative property of multiplication:
8*(100*4)=8*(4*100);
4. Let's use the associative property of multiplication:
8*(4*100)=(8*4)*100;
5. Replace the product in brackets with its value:
(8*4)*100 =32*100;
6. When multiplying a number by 1 with zeros, you need to add as many zeros to the number as there are in the second factor:
32*100=3200.
Of course, younger schoolchildren cannot learn the sequence of actions in this form, but by clearly presenting all the operations, the teacher can offer children various exercises, the implementation of which will allow the children to understand the method of activity. For example:
Is it possible, without performing calculations, to say that the values of the expressions in each column are the same:
9*(8*100) 800*7 (9*8)*100 (8*7)*100 (9*100)*8 8*(7*100) 9*100 8*700 72*100 56*100
Explain how you obtained the expression written on the right:
4*6*10=40*6 2*8*10=20*8 8*5*10=8*50 5*7*10=7*50
Is it possible to say that the values of the products in each pair are the same:
45*10 54*10 32*10 9*50 60*9 8*40
In order for children to understand the algorithmic essence of the actions they perform, it is necessary to reformulate these mathematical tasks in the form of a specific program.
For example, the task “find 5 numbers, the first of which is 3, each next one is 2 more than the previous one” can be represented as an algorithmic prescription like this:
1. Write down the number 3.
2. Increase it by 2.
3. Increase the result by 2.
4. Repeat operation 3 until you write down 5 numbers. The verbal algorithmic prescription can be replaced with a schematic one:
This will allow students to more clearly imagine each operation and the sequence in which they are performed.
Task 94. Formulate the following mathematical tasks in the form of algorithmic instructions and present them in the form of a diagram
actions:
a) write 4 numbers, the first of which is 1, each next
2 times more than the previous one;
b) write 4 numbers, the first of which is 0, the second is greater than the first by 1, the third is greater than the second by 2, the fourth is greater than the third by 3;
c) write 6 numbers: if the first is 9, the second is 1, and each next one is equal to the sum of the two previous ones.
Along with verbal and schematic instructions, you can specify the algorithm in the form of a table.
For example, the task: “Write down the numbers from 1 to 6. Increase each:
a) by 2; b) by 3" can be presented in the following table:
+
Thus, algorithmic instructions can be specified verbally, in diagrams and in tables.
By working with specific mathematical objects and generalizations in the form of rules, children master the ability to identify the elementary steps of their actions and determine their sequence.
For example, the rule for checking addition can be formulated as an algorithmic prescription as follows. In order to check addition by subtraction, you need:
1) subtract one of the terms from the sum;
2) compare the result obtained with another term;
3) if the result obtained is equal to another term, then the addition is performed correctly;
4) otherwise look for an error.
Task 95. Make up algorithmic instructions that younger schoolchildren can use when: a) adding single-digit numbers with transition through place value; b) comparison of multi-digit numbers; c) solving equations; d) written multiplication by a single-digit number.
To develop the ability to compose algorithms, you need to teach children: to find a general method of action; highlight the basic, elementary actions that make up the given; plan the sequence of selected actions; write the algorithm correctly.
Let's consider tasks whose goal is to identify a method of action:
The numbers are given (see picture). Make up expressions and find their meanings. How many addition examples can you make? How should one reason in this case so as not to miss a single case?
When completing this task, students realize the need to identify a general method of action. For example, fix the first term 31, add all the numbers in the second column as the second, then fix, for example, the number 41 as the first term and again select all the numbers from the second column, etc. You can fix the second term and go through all the numbers in the first column. It is important that the child understands that by adhering to a certain method of action, he will not miss a single case and will not write down a single case twice.
The hall has three chandeliers and 6 windows. For the holiday, a garland was stretched from each chandelier to each window for decoration. How many garlands did you hang in total? (When solving, you can use a schematic drawing.)
Combinatorial tasks are useful for developing students’ ability to identify a method of action. Their peculiarity is that they have not one, but many solutions, and when executing them, it is necessary to search in a rational sequence. For example:
How many different five-digit numbers can be written using the numbers 55522 (the number 5 can be repeated three times, 2 - twice).
To solve this combinatorial problem, you can use the construction of a “tree”. First, one digit is written down, with which you can start recording the number. The further algorithm of actions comes down to writing down numbers that can be placed after each digit until we get a five-digit number. Following this algorithm, you need to combine and count how many times the numbers 5 and 2 are repeated.
The result is “branches” with different numbers: 55522, 55252, 55225, 52552, 52525, 52255. Then the number 2 is written out.
We write down the numbers, moving along the “branches”: 22555, 25525, 25552, 25255. Answer: you can write down 10 numbers.
Task 96. Select combinatorial problems that you could offer to first, second and third grade students when studying various concepts in the initial mathematics course.
CHAPTER 4. TRAINING JUNIOR SCHOOL CHILDREN IN PROBLEM SOLVING
4.1. The concept of “problem” in an initial mathematics course
Any mathematical task can be considered as a task by highlighting the condition in it, i.e. the part that contains information about known and unknown values of quantities, the relationships between them, and the requirement (i.e. an indication of what needs to be found) . Let's look at examples of mathematical tasks from a primary school course:
> Put the = signs to get the correct entries: 3 ... 5, 8 ... 4.
The condition of the problem is the numbers 3 and 5, 8 and 4. The requirement is to compare these numbers.
*> Solve the equation: x + 4 = 9.
The condition contains an equation. The requirement is to solve it, that is, substitute such a number for x to obtain a true equality.
Here the condition gives triangles. The requirement is to fold a rectangle.
To fulfill each requirement, a specific method or method of action is used, depending on which different types of mathematical problems are distinguished: construction, proof-
Moscow Department of Education
Pedagogical College No. 9 “Arbat”
The role of play in the learning and personality development of younger schoolchildren.
Graduation qualification
Student Chernov Sergei Albertovich
Specialty 050709
Primary school teaching
Scientific director
Smirnova Larisa Alekseevna
Reviewer
Defense date
GEC teacher
Deputy State Examiner
Commission members
Secretary.
Moscow 2010
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3
Chapter 1 Theoretical foundations of the game……………………………………..8
1.1 Historical and social prerequisites for the emergence of the game…………8
1.2 Types of games and their classification………………………………………….15
1.3 Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of a junior schoolchild....22
Chapter 2 Game as a factor in the learning and development of the personality of a junior schoolchild…………………………………………………………………………………....36
2.1 The role of the game in the development of the personality of a primary school student……………...36
2.2 Educational games as a factor in personality development…………………..41
2.3 Didactic games as a teaching method…………………………….45
2.4 Sample program for conducting a developmental lesson using game teaching methods……………………………………………………………….52
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..62
Bibliography……………………………………………………………..66
Introduction
The relevance of research. Currently, the modern humanistic school is focused on individual and interpersonal approaches to each child. The school needs to organize its activities in such a way that would ensure the development of the abilities and creative attitude to life of each student, the introduction of various innovative educational programs, and the implementation of the principle of a humane approach to children. In other words, the school is extremely interested in knowledge about the developmental characteristics of each individual child. And it is no coincidence that the role of practical knowledge in the professional training of teaching staff is increasingly increasing. The transformation of general education and vocational schools aims to use all opportunities and resources to increase the efficiency of the educational process.
The level of education and upbringing in school is largely determined by the extent to which the pedagogical process is focused on the psychology of the age-related and individual development of the child. This involves a psychological and pedagogical study of schoolchildren throughout the entire period of study in order to identify individual development options, the creative abilities of each child, strengthening his own positive activity, revealing the uniqueness of his personality, and timely assistance in case of lagging behind in studies or unsatisfactory behavior.
The modern school has an urgent need to expand its methodological potential in general, and in active forms of learning in particular. Such active forms of learning include games. The effectiveness of play as a means of creative personal development is especially evident in primary school age.
Gaming technologies can be used in educational work in secondary schools. The opportunity to become a hero and experience real adventures with peers, the emotionality and excitement of the game make the game attractive to children.
The game is one of the unique forms of learning. The entertaining nature of the conventional world of the game positively emotionally colors the monotonous activity of assimilation or consolidation of information, and the emotional actions of the game activate all the processes and functions of the child’s psyche. The next positive aspect of the game is that it promotes the application of knowledge in new conditions, thus, the material mastered by students goes through a kind of practice, bringing interest and variety to the learning process.
The game has predictability, it is more diagnostic than any other human activity, firstly, because the individual behaves in the game to the maximum of manifestations (physical strength, intelligence, creativity), and secondly, the game itself is a special “field of self-expression” .
In the game, the child is the author, performer and almost always the creator, experiencing feelings of admiration and pleasure that free him from disharmony. A game is simultaneously a developmental activity, a principle, method and form of life activity, a zone of socialization, security, self-rehabilitation, cooperation, community, co-creation with adults. In the game, social experience of relationships between people is learned and acquired. Play is social by nature, being a reflected model of behavior, manifestation and development of complex self-organizing systems and the “free” practice of creative decisions, preferences, choices of free behavior of a child, a sphere of unique human activity.
The socio-cultural meaning of the game can mean the synthesis of a child’s assimilation of the wealth of culture, the formation of his personality, which allows the child to act as a full member of a child or adult team.
Theoretical lack of development and practical demand determined the choice Topics research “The role of games in the education and personality development of younger schoolchildren”, problem which was formulated as follows: what gaming techniques are most effective as a means of developing children of primary school age. The solution to this problem was purpose of the study.
Object of study: development of junior schoolchildren
Subject of study: Play as a condition for the development of children of primary school age.
Research hypothesis consisted in the assumption that the development of the personality of younger schoolchildren through games would be effective provided:
In accordance with the goal, object, subject and hypothesis, the following are formulated research objectives:
1) Analyze the historical and social prerequisites for the emergence of the game, the main types of games and their classification
2) Give a psychological and pedagogical characteristics of a primary school student
3) Identify the role of play in the development of the personality of a primary school student
4) Consider educational games as a factor in personality development and didactic games as a method of teaching primary schoolchildren
Theoretical and methodological basis of the study become :
Jean Piaget's theory of play development;
Provisions of humanistic pedagogy and psychology (Sh.A. Amonashvili, A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V.A. Sukhomlinsky, K.D. Ushinsky, etc.);
Research revealing the development of children's play (Z. Freud, J. Huizing, Y. Levada, D.B. Elkonin.).
In the process of completing the final qualifying work, the following were used: research methods: literature analysis, monographic study of teaching experience, study of mass teaching experience.
Theoretical significance of the study is that it characterizes didactic and developmental games as a method of teaching primary schoolchildren.
Practical significance of the study. The conclusions and recommendations formulated in the study can be used in the work of a teacher when organizing work with primary schoolchildren; research materials can be used in the practice of primary school teachers; An approximate lesson program has been developed using didactic and educational games.
Structure of the final qualifying work. The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, and a bibliography.
In the introduction the relevance of the chosen topic is considered; the goals, objectives, object, subject, hypothesis of the research are determined, its scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance are characterized.
In the first chapter“Theoretical Foundations of Play” examines the basic theories of the development of children's play, types of play, and also gives the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of a junior schoolchild.
In the second chapter“Game as a factor in the learning and development of the personality of a junior schoolchild” reveals the features of the development of the personality of a junior schoolchild through the means of play, as well as the features of the use of didactic and developmental games in the process of teaching junior schoolchildren.
In custody The results of the study are summed up and the main conclusions are stated.
Chapter 1 Theoretical foundations of the game
1.1 Historical and social prerequisites for the emergence of the game
1.1 Historical background of the game
Game, as one of the most amazing phenomena of human life, has attracted the attention of philosophers and researchers of all eras. Even in primitive society, there were games that depicted war, hunting, agricultural work, and the feelings of savages over the death of a wounded comrade. The game was associated with different types of art. The savages played like children; the game included dances, songs, elements of dramatic and visual arts. Sometimes games were credited with magical effects. Thus, human play emerges as an activity separated from productive work activity and representing the reproduction of relationships between people. This is how adult play appears, play as the basis for future aesthetic and visual activity. Children's play arises in the course of the historical development of society as a result of a change in the child's place in the system of social relations. It is social by its origin, by its nature.
Play does not arise spontaneously, but develops in the process of education. Being a powerful stimulus for the development of a child, it itself is formed under the influence of adults. In the process of a child’s interaction with the objective world, necessarily with the participation of an adult, not immediately, but at a certain stage in the development of this interaction, truly human children’s play arises.
“Game, play activity, one of the types of activities characteristic of animals and humans,” notes the Pedagogical Encyclopedia. The concept of “game” (“games”) in Russian is found in the Laurentian Chronicle.
Already Plato saw the only correct path in the game, which seemed to him one of the most practically useful activities. Thus, he placed the game of checkers next to the art of counting and geometry. In fact, Plato equated play with art.
Aristotle saw play as a source of mental balance, harmony of soul and body. In his Poetics, the philosopher talks about the benefits of word games and puns for the development of intelligence. Thus, Aristotle was one of the first to note the practical significance of the game for the psychophysical development of a person.
Since the Renaissance, interest in the game has been growing: Francois Rabelais and Michel de Montaigne see in the game an essential moment of human life. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Jean Jacques Rousseau and many other outstanding personalities begin to talk about the real practical significance of the game for humans.
At the end of the nineteenth century, the first to attempt a systematic study of the game was the German scientist K. Gross, who believed that the game prevents instincts in relation to future conditions of the struggle for existence. The scientist put forward a number of functional provisions, which were largely progressive in nature and have not lost their scientific significance today. He pointed out the forward direction of play, believing that play is a preparation for life - he owns the theory of play as the unintentional self-education of a child. He considered children's play as an important means of forming and training skills necessary for psychophysical and personal development, as well as future activities.
In fact, K. Gross was the first to show the social quality and significance of play, both for children and adults. He viewed the game as the primary form of a person’s involvement in society through voluntary submission to general rules or a leader. He also saw in the game the development of a sense of responsibility for oneself (one’s actions) and one’s group, the development of a noble desire to show one’s capabilities in actions performed for the sake of the group, and the formation of the ability to learn.
K. Gross considered adult play from the point of view of the functions it performs in culture:
1. function of complementing being in the physical, intellectual and emotional spheres of the individual;
2. the function of liberation and gaining personal freedom;
3. function of harmonizing the world and man with the world.
The special merit of the scientist K. Gross lies in the fact that he did not limit himself to stating a special kind of state and mood of people in the game, but looked for scientifically sound grounds for this. This basis was the special psychological state of the subject of the game, ensuring the two-dimensionality of his behavior (real and game behavior).
K. Bühler, a German psychologist, defined play as an activity performed for the sake of obtaining “functional pleasure.”
G.V. Plekhanov believed that play arises in response to society’s need to prepare the younger generation for life in this society and as an activity separated from productive work activity and representing the reproduction of relationships between people.
In Russian psychology, the theory of play, based on the recognition of its social nature, was developed by E. A. Arkin, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev. D. B. Elkonin, linking play with indicative activity, defines it as an activity in which behavior control is developed and improved.
Let us note that we still do not have a scientific, common definition of play for all, and all researchers (biologists, ethnographers, philosophers, psychologists) start from intuitive awareness, the corresponding culture, a certain reality and the place of play that it occupies in this culture.
Since the thirties, a number of researchers: J. Huizing, Y. Levada and others, have created a cultural concept of the game, in which the game is considered as the most important characteristic of a person, as a cultural being.
According to Johanna Huizing, play decorates life, complements it, and as a result is vital for every person, regardless of age and social status. It is necessary for the individual as a biological function, and it is also necessary for society due to the “human meaning” contained in it, due to its meaning, its expressive value, due to the spiritual and social connections it establishes. The game performs a cultural function.
From a philosophical point of view, the game is analyzed in the works of H.G. Gadamer, I. Kant, F. Schiller. The game is seen as an image rather than an experience. It is unique in that they believed that it has boundaries between the depicted and the real.
The game, from the position of psychologists, has slightly different concepts. K. Gross’s position is accepted by V. Stern in his theory of play (game as an exercise), but at the same time, he considers it “from the side of consciousness” and the manifestations of children’s imagination in play.
A special role in the development of game theory belongs to the outstanding world-famous psychologist Jean Piaget. He argued that play is only one aspect of human activity and is connected with it in the same way as imagination is with thinking. The fact that play is the predominant activity in children is explained by the initial stage of their psychophysical development. According to his point of view, play is a form of creativity, but creativity with a specific purpose. This is a kind of preparation for possible forms of behavior at a given level, which does not imply their immediate practical use. In the game, a person learns to navigate and overcome the difficulties prepared for him in the world of reality. J. Piaget believed that the inner world of a child is built according to its own special laws and differs from the inner world of an adult. In his opinion, the child’s thought is, as it were, an intermediary between the logical thought of an adult and the autistic world of the child.
According to Jean Piaget, play appears in the process of human development at each subsequent stage, never disappearing completely, in the following forms:
Exercise game. Leads to the formation of the most complex skills;
Symbolic game. Contributes to the formation of processes of replacing reality with signs and symbols, thereby creating the basis of artistic activity;
A game with rules. Allows competition and cooperation.
Jean Piaget's general conclusion is that activity becomes playful depending on the internal fantasy of the individual.
Psychoanalysis 3. Freud has had a major influence on the study of play. He offers two approaches to children's play. One approach is seen as satisfying drives and needs that cannot be achieved in real life. The second approach is characterized by the following - the child’s real needs and emotions become the subject of the game, change their nature, and he actively controls them.
It is also worth noting the research of the game by A. Adler, who showed the possibility of using the game for understanding, adaptation, training and therapy of children. The scientist identifies 8 functions of dramatic play: reflection of the child’s experience; imitation, acting out real life roles; release of “forbidden impulses”; expression of repressed needs; resolving your problems in the game; turning to roles that help expand your Self; a reflection of the growth, development, and maturation of a child.
Along with the concepts of A. Adler, E. Fromm and other famous neo-Freudian scientists, we should dwell on the concept of E. Bern. The author notes that raising children in most cases comes down to the fact that different options for children’s games depend on the culture and social class of the family. In this E. Bern sees the cultural significance of the game. E. Bern believes that people choose their friends, partners, loved ones, most often, from among those who play the same games. This is the personal meaning of games.
The problems of the influence of the sociocultural and ethnocultural environment on the content of children's play and children's play experience are united by a number of domestic and foreign researchers - V. P. Zinchenko, S. Miller,
D. N. Uznadze, D. B. Elkonin, E. G. Erickson. They indicate the main conceptual ideas that characterize this relationship; The content of a child’s play depends on the environment in which he has to live. The age environment and socio-cultural environment of children are of decisive importance for play; The character and plot of the game is influenced by belonging to different sociocultural communities and groups.
The outstanding Russian teacher P. F. Kapterev made a special contribution to the study of the game in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The author noted that in teaching a teenager it is extremely important to be able to focus his attention on various subjects. “The game teaches this great art. To achieve this goal, it is necessary that there is no opposition between play and learning, so that learning is not something extremely dry and repulsive in essence and form.” From the point of view of P. F. Kapterev, games should be recognized as a significant aid to systematic teaching; learning and play are not enemies - they are friends, whom nature itself has indicated to walk the same road and mutually support each other.
In the thirties in Soviet psychology, M. Ya. Basov and P. P. Blonsky were involved in the study of play, but L. S. Vygotsky made a special contribution to the development of the theory of children's play. According to L. S. Vygotsky’s definition, play “creates a child’s zone of proximal development; in play, the child is always above his average age, above his usual behavior; In the game he seems to be head and shoulders above himself.”
D. B. Elkonin in his theory defined the way of studying role-playing games as identifying indecomposable units that have the properties of the whole. In his opinion, such units are role, plot, content, game action.
Along with the concepts that gave high marks to the educational potential of the game, there were also those into the framework of which the game as a method, a means, a way of teaching children did not fit into the framework; moreover, teachers saw in it a phenomenon that takes a little person away from real life and teaches him to live in idleness. Thus, K. D. Ushinsky, for example, believed that learning should be separated from play and represent a serious responsibility of the child, and S. Frenet assessed play only as a means of establishing order in the classroom.
The brightest example of a teacher’s playful position is represented by the activities of A.M. Makarenko. He wrote: “I consider play to be one of the most important ways of education. In the life of a children's team, serious, responsible and business play should occupy a large place. And you, teachers, must be able to play.”
The essence of the game is that it is not the result that is important, but the process itself, the process of experiences associated with game actions. Although the situations played out by the child are imaginary, the feelings he experiences are real. “There are no people more serious in the game than small children. While playing, they not only laugh, but also feel deeply and sometimes suffer.”
Sh.A. Amonashvili writes: “the most intensive development of many functions occurs before the child is 7-9 years old, and therefore the need for play at this age is especially strong, and play turns into an activity that controls development. It forms the child’s personal qualities, his attitude to reality, to people.”
One of the fundamental attempts to understand the phenomenon of play undertaken recently is the study of E. A. Reprintseva, which is generally pedagogical in nature. “Game, according to E. A. Reprintseva, is a historically conditioned, natural and organic element of culture, which is an independent type of activity of an individual, in which the social experience of previous generations, norms and rules of human life are reproduced and enriched through the voluntary acceptance of a gaming role, virtual modeling of the gaming space, the conditions of one’s own existence in the world, is carried out, the realization by a person of creative potential, focused on achieving a gaming result.” Modern play is going beyond the boundaries of the usual course of things, part of a certain ecology of the soul, it is providing a person with the opportunity to create, escape from the depths of his feelings, turn away from himself, clogged with work and the worries of everyday life. The game relieves subjective or socio-psychological tension, allows you to join the culture of your people, becomes a way of connecting generations and a powerful means of creating the socio-psychological unity of the nation.
So, this paragraph outlined the basic theories of the development of children's play, the prerequisites for the development of play and the historical aspects of changes in play.
1.2 Types of games and their classification
Classification of games is a system that classifies games into different families, genera, types and categories according to a set of classifying characteristics.
Play, a specific children's activity, is heterogeneous. Each type of game performs its own function in the development of a child. The blurring of lines between amateur and educational games observed today in theory and practice is unacceptable. In preschool and primary school age, there are three classes of games:
Games that arise on the child’s initiative are amateur games;
Games that arise on the initiative of an adult who introduces them for educational and educational purposes;
Games that come from the historically established traditions of an ethnic group are folk games that can arise both on the initiative of an adult and older children.
Each of the listed classes of games, in turn, is represented by types and subtypes. Thus, the first class includes: game-experimentation and plot-based amateur games - plot-educational, plot-role-playing, director's and theatrical. This class of games seems to be the most productive for the development of the child’s intellectual initiative and creativity, which are manifested in setting new gaming tasks for themselves and other players; for the emergence of new motives and activities. It is the games that arise on the initiative of the children themselves that most clearly represent the game as a form of practical reflection based on knowledge about the surrounding reality of significant experiences and impressions associated with the child’s life experience. It is amateur play that is the leading activity in preschool childhood.
The second class of games includes educational games (didactic, plot-didactic and others) and leisure games, which include fun games, entertainment games, and intellectual games. All games can be independent, but they are never amateur, since independence in them is based on learning the rules, and not on the child’s original initiative in setting up the game problem.
The educational and developmental significance of such games is enormous. They shape the culture of the game; promote the assimilation of social norms and rules; and, what is especially important, they are, along with other activities, the basis of amateur games in which children can creatively use the acquired knowledge.
Word games are built on the words and actions of the players. In such games, children learn, based on existing ideas about objects, to deepen their knowledge about them, since in these games it is necessary to use previously acquired knowledge about new connections in new circumstances. Children independently solve various mental problems: describe objects, highlighting their characteristic features; guess from the description; find signs of similarities and differences; group objects according to various properties and characteristics; find illogicalities in judgments, etc.
The second group consists of games used to develop the ability to compare, contrast, and give correct conclusions: “Similar - dissimilar,” “Who will notice more fables,” and others.
Games that help develop the ability to generalize and classify objects according to various criteria are combined in the third group: “Who needs what? ” “Name three objects”, “Name in one word.”
A special fourth group includes games for the development of attention, intelligence, and quick thinking: “Colors”, “Flies, does not fly” and others.
The third class of games is traditional or folk. Historically, they form the basis of many educational and leisure games. The subject matter of folk games is also traditional, they themselves, and are more often presented in museums rather than in children's groups.
Research conducted in recent years has shown that folk games contribute to the formation in children of universal generic and mental abilities of a person (sensorimotor coordination, arbitrariness of behavior, symbolic function of thinking, etc.), as well as the most important features of the psychology of the ethnic group that created the game.
To ensure the developmental potential of games, we need not only a variety of toys, a special creative aura created by adults who are passionate about working with children, but also an appropriate subject-spatial environment.
It is important for teachers to think through the phased distribution of games, including didactic ones, in the lesson. At the beginning of the lesson, the goal of the game is to organize and interest children and stimulate their activity. In the middle of the lesson, a didactic game should solve the problem of mastering the topic. At the end of the lesson, the game can be of a search nature. At any stage of the lesson, the game must meet the following requirements: be interesting, accessible, exciting, and involve children in different types of activities. Consequently, the game can be played at any stage of the lesson, as well as in lessons of different types. The didactic game is part of a holistic pedagogical process, combined and interconnected with other forms of teaching and upbringing of younger schoolchildren.
According to another classification, there are certain types of gaming activities:
1. Household – weddings, family, divorces, death, communication, etc.
2. Economic – extraction, production, trade in products and consumer goods, construction.
3. Political – the structure of governance, its scheme, patterns of interaction between states and rulers.
4. Military - creating and training an army, conducting combat operations, fights and tournaments.
5. Cultural – art and rituals, competitions...
6. Religious - choice and performance of rituals, eradication of heresies, etc.
7. Magical (magic) - modeling the influence of magicians, wizards, gods, as well as various magical and fairy-tale items - clothing (for example, boots), fairy-tale monsters.
8. Scientific – the process of creating new tools, substances, machines, the development of various sciences. Reproducing the sphere of activity is the creation of a gaming environment where the actions of players in the everyday, economic, political, military, cultural, religious, magical, scientific spheres are also important and bring the same results as in real (real) life.
Games used in the learning process can be divided into:
1) Educational
A game will be educational if students participate in it, acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities or are forced to acquire them in the process of preparing for the game. Moreover, the result of knowledge acquisition will be better the more clearly the motive of cognitive activity is expressed not only in the game, but also in the very content of the mathematical material.
2) Controlling
The controlling game will be the didactic purpose of which is to repeat, consolidate, and test previously acquired knowledge. To participate in it, each student needs a certain mathematical background.
3) Generalizing
Generalization games require knowledge integration. They contribute to the establishment of interdisciplinary connections and are aimed at acquiring skills to act in various learning situations.
Types of games, according to T. Craig
1) Sensory games. Goal: acquiring sensory experience. Children examine objects, play with sand and make Easter cakes, and splash with water. Thanks to this, children learn about the properties of things. They develop the child's physical and sensory capabilities.
2) Motor games. Goal: awareness of your physical “I”, formation of body culture. Children run, jump, play “heaps and drops” with their parents, ride down ice slides, and can repeat the same actions for a long time. Motor games provide an emotional charge and promote the development of motor skills.
3) Game-fuss. Goal: physical exercise, stress relief, learning to manage emotions and feelings. Children love brawls and make-believe fights, understanding perfectly well the difference between a real fight and a make-believe fight.
4) Language games. Goal: structuring your life with the help of language, experimenting and mastering the rhythmic structure and melody of the language. Games with words allow a 3-4 year old child to master grammar, use the rules of linguistics, and master the semantic nuances of speech.
5) Role-playing games and simulations. Goal: acquaintance and mastery of social relations, norms and traditions inherent in the culture in which the child lives. Children play out various roles and situations: they play mother-daughter, copy their parents, and pretend to be a driver. They not only imitate the characteristics of someone’s behavior, but also fantasize and complete the situation in their imagination.
S.A. Shmakov proposes to classify games according to external characteristics (content, form, location, number of participants, degree of regulation and management, presence of accessories) and internal characteristics, which include the individual’s abilities manifested in the game (imitation, competition, merging with nature, imitation and etc.).
There are many classifications, one of which divides games as follows:
1) Based on the number of players, games can be divided into collective and individual.
2) In collective games, in turn, we can distinguish a class of team games that differ from games in which everyone plays for himself.
3) According to their complexity, games can be divided into children's and family, simple and complex.
4) According to the physical activity that falls on the participants - active and calm (“quiet”).
5) According to the place of play - outdoor games and board games.
6) According to their prevalence in various social and age groups, games can be divided into children's, family, folk
So, in this paragraph the main approaches to the classification of games were outlined and their brief characteristics were given.
1.3 Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of a junior schoolchild
Junior school age (from 7 to 10-11 years) corresponds to the years of study in primary school. Preschool childhood is over. By the time a child enters school, as a rule, he is already both physically and psychologically prepared for learning, for a new important period of his life, for fulfilling the diverse demands that the school places on him.
The child is psychologically ready for school education, first of all, objectively, that is, he has the level of mental development necessary to begin learning. The sharpness and freshness of his perception, curiosity, and vividness of imagination are well known. His attention is already relatively long and stable, and this is clearly manifested in games, in drawing, modeling, and basic design. The child has acquired some experience in managing his attention and organizing it independently. The child’s memory is also quite developed - he easily and firmly remembers what particularly amazes him, which is directly related to his interests. Now not only adults, but also he himself is able to set a mnemonic task for himself. He already knows from experience: in order to remember something well, you need to repeat it several times, that is, he empirically masters some techniques of rational memorization and memorization. A seven-year-old child's visual-figurative memory is relatively well developed, and all the prerequisites for the development of verbal-logical memory are already in place. The efficiency of meaningful memorization increases: it has been experimentally proven that seven-year-old children remember significantly better (faster and more firmly) not words that are meaningless to them, but words that they understand.
By the time a child enters school, his speech is already quite developed. It is to a certain extent grammatically correct and expressive. The vocabulary of a seven-year-old child is also quite rich, with a fairly high proportion of abstract concepts. The child can understand what he hears within a fairly wide range, express his thoughts coherently, is capable of elementary mental operations - comparison, generalization, and tries to draw conclusions (of course, not always legitimate). Research by specialists has shown that organized education develops the thinking of children from 6 to 7 years old so much that they are able, for example, to measure solid, liquid and granular bodies using conventional measures, divide a whole into parts, carry out elementary operations with visually represented sets, solve and compose simple examples and tasks.
As we see, the capabilities of children by the time they enter school are great enough to begin their systematic education. Elementary personal manifestations are also formed: by the time they enter school, children already have a certain perseverance, can set more distant goals and achieve them (although more often they do not complete things), make their first attempts to evaluate actions from the standpoint of their social significance, they are characterized by the first manifestations of a sense of duty and responsibility. A seven-year-old child already has experience (albeit small) of managing his feelings, experience of self-assessment of his individual actions and actions (“I did something bad”; “I did it wrong”; “Now I did better”). All this is an important condition for readiness for schooling.
A seven-year-old child, as a rule, is characterized by a desire and desire to study at school, and a kind of readiness for new forms of relationships with adults. He has no doubts about whether he needs to study. He understands and willingly recognizes for a certain category of adults (teachers) their special educational functions and is ready to diligently carry out all their instructions. The “transfer of experience” from older to younger ones is also of considerable importance (as you know, first and second graders sometimes really like to impress their younger brothers and sisters with stories about their “hard life” at school), as well as visual impressions.
The anatomical and physiological characteristics of a junior schoolchild and the level of his physical development should also be taken into account when organizing pedagogical work in primary school. As N.D. Levitov correctly noted, at no other school age is educational activity in such close connection with the state of health and physical development as at a younger age.
At 7-11 years old, the child physically develops relatively calmly and evenly. The increase in height and weight, endurance, and vital capacity of the lungs occurs quite evenly and proportionally. The skeletal system of a primary school student is at the stage of formation: ossification of the spine, chest, pelvis, and limbs is not complete, and there is a lot of cartilaginous tissue in the skeletal system. This must be taken into account and tirelessly taken care of the correct posture, posture, and gait of students. The process of ossification of the hand and fingers at primary school age does not completely end, so small and precise movements of the fingers and hand are difficult and tiring, especially for first-graders.
Although it is necessary to strictly observe the regime of study and rest, not to overtire the primary school student, it should be borne in mind that his physical development, as a rule, allows him to study for 3-5 hours without overexertion and particular fatigue (3-4 lessons at school and doing homework). assignments).
When a child enters school, his entire way of life, his social status, his position in the team and family changes dramatically. His main activity from now on becomes teaching, the most important social duty is the duty to learn and acquire knowledge. And learning is serious work that requires a certain level of organization, discipline, and considerable volitional efforts on the part of the child. More and more often you have to do what you need, and not what you want. The student is included in a new team in which he will live, study, develop and grow up for 10 years. A class team is not just a group of peers. The team presupposes the ability to live by its interests, to subordinate one’s personal desires to common aspirations, it presupposes mutual exactingness, mutual assistance, collective responsibility, a high level of organization and discipline. In order to master knowledge in elementary school, a junior schoolchild must have a relatively high level of development of observation, voluntary memorization, organized attention, and the ability to analyze, generalize, and reason. These requirements are growing and becoming more complex every day.
From the first days of school, a basic contradiction arises, which is the driving force of development in primary school age. This is a contradiction between the ever-growing demands that academic work, teachers, and staff place on the child’s personality, on his attention, memory, thinking, and the current level of mental development, the development of personality traits. Requirements are increasing all the time, and the current level of mental development is constantly being pulled up to their level.
Many years of research by psychologists have shown that old programs and textbooks clearly underestimated the cognitive capabilities of younger schoolchildren, and that it was irrational to stretch the already meager educational material over four years. The slow pace of progress and endless monotonous repetition led not only to an unjustified loss of time, but also had a very negative impact on the mental development of schoolchildren. The current programs and textbooks, which are much more meaningful and deep, place much greater demands on the mental development of a primary school student and actively stimulate this development. The purpose of these programs is to promote the development of active, independent thinking and cognitive abilities in younger schoolchildren, relying on the child’s existing concepts, ideas, knowledge, and the curiosity and inquisitiveness characteristic of this age. From the point of view of psychology, current programs and textbooks are constructed quite rationally. They really demand a lot from students. It is precisely high and at the same time feasible demands that stimulate the development of the psyche. Experience shows that these programs are feasible. The children cope with them, and learning has become more interesting for them.
So, the child became a schoolboy. A turning point in his life had come. His main activity, his first and most important responsibility, becomes teaching - the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and abilities, the accumulation of systematic information about nature and society. Of course, it is not immediately that younger schoolchildren develop a highly responsible attitude towards learning.
The dynamics of the development of attitudes towards acquiring knowledge and motives for learning are usually of a natural nature, although significant individual variations are observed here. It has already been indicated that at the beginning of school, seven-year-old children, as a rule, have a positive perception of the immediate prospects of school work. We can even talk about the presence of a unique need in children, which is distinguished by characteristic features. This, in fact, is not yet the need for learning, mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, not the need to learn new things, to experience the phenomena of the surrounding reality, but the need to become a schoolchild, which comes down to the desire to change one’s position as a small child, to rise to the next level of independence, to take a position older and busy family member. A big role is played by the external attributes of learning - the desire to have a uniform, your own briefcase, your own place to study, a shelf for books, to go to school every day, like dad or mom goes to work. The pleasant prospect of rising in the eyes of the “little ones” is attractive.
At first, many schoolchildren maintain an attitude towards learning, if not as a new entertaining game, then, in any case, as an entertaining situation that attracts with its novelty. Many people especially like recess at school, they like “how the teacher teaches us to raise our hands up,” “how we have breakfast,” “how we walk in pairs,” etc. Most first-graders still do not understand why they need to study. For them, even the question itself sometimes makes no sense: everyone studies, everyone goes to school, it’s customary, it’s necessary. Correct answers to this question do not mean that children deeply understand the meaning of the teaching - they simply faithfully repeat what they heard from their parents and teachers. First-graders are ready to study diligently, without thinking about why it is necessary.
The critical moment comes very quickly, usually after 2-3 weeks. The festive, solemn atmosphere is gradually replaced by a business-like, everyday atmosphere, and the feeling of novelty passes unnoticed. And it turns out that learning is work that requires volitional efforts, mobilization of attention, intellectual activity, and self-restraint. If the child is not used to this, then he becomes disappointed. It is very important that the teacher, without waiting for such a critical moment, instills in the child the idea that learning is not a holiday, not a game, but serious, hard work, but it is very interesting, as it allows you to learn a lot of new and necessary things. It is important that the organization of educational work itself reinforces the teacher’s words.
First, a first-grader develops an interest in the learning process itself. There is still a lot from the game in pronunciation of sounds and writing elements of letters. In the first few grades, an experiment was conducted: children were given Japanese characters to copy, warning that they would never need this in life. No one asked the question: why do this need to be done? Everyone worked enthusiastically and diligently. Interest in the result of the activity is formed quickly: as soon as the student receives the first real results of his activity.
Only after the emergence of interest in the results of his educational work does a first-grader develop an interest in the content of educational activities and a need to acquire knowledge. On this basis, motives for learning of a high social order, associated with a truly responsible attitude to academic activities, can be formed in a junior schoolchild. The teacher must instill in schoolchildren precisely such motives for learning, and ensure that children understand the social significance of educational work. But this process should not be forced until the appropriate prerequisites have been created for it.
The formation of interest in the content of educational activities and the acquisition of knowledge is associated with schoolchildren experiencing a feeling of satisfaction from their achievements. And this feeling is stimulated by the teacher’s approval, emphasizing even the smallest success, progress. Younger schoolchildren, especially first and second graders, experience, for example, a feeling of pride, a special uplift when the teacher, encouraging them and stimulating their desire to work better, says: “You are now working not like little children, but like real students!” Psychologically, this is a reinforcement of the student’s developing skills and abilities. It is important that the student experiences the joy of success. It’s useful to comment on even relative failure something like this: “You’re already writing much better. Compare how you wrote today and how you wrote a week ago. Well done! A little more effort and you will write as you should!” Of course, this encouragement is useful when the student works conscientiously. Obvious negligence, laziness, negligence should cause censure, of course, in a tactful manner.
When we talk about encouragement from a teacher, we do not always mean a grade. There should always be evaluation of work. Verbal assessment is usually understandable to a first-grader and, as a rule, makes an appropriate impression if it is motivated and done with pedagogical tact. The fact is that a grade becomes a kind of psychological factor for younger schoolchildren. “D” often leads to a lack of confidence in one’s abilities; good grades can breed selfish people.
The famous teacher V.A. Sukhomlinsky held approximately the same point of view on grades in the primary grades.
However, it seems to us that we should not categorically deny the importance of assessing knowledge at primary school age. A fair assessment, accompanied by tactfully expressed comments from the teacher about the content and logic of the answer or the quality of the work performed, as well as appropriate advice and recommendations, is usually a positive factor.
The potential for a teacher's educational influence on younger schoolchildren is great, since from the very beginning he becomes an indisputable authority for first-graders, personifying for them the wisdom of a thoughtful leader and the sensitivity of a benevolent mentor. The teacher personifies for the children the school to which they so longed and with which so many changes in their lives are associated. The authority of parents and older family members pales in comparison to the authority of the teacher. Junior schoolchildren do not have any doubts about the correctness of the teacher’s actions; they do not allow any discussions of his actions. “That’s what Ekaterina Vasilievna said!” First and second graders do not require or expect any motivation, argumentation of words and actions from the teacher. But this in no way means that the teacher should use his indisputable authority and not explain why one must act one way and not another, why one action is good and another is bad. It is imperative to explain, firstly, because the goal of education is conscious discipline, and not blind obedience, and secondly, because by the end of the second grade the student himself will ask the question “why?” He will wait for an explanation not because the teacher’s authority has fallen in his eyes, but because he is gradually approaching a higher level of mental maturity. The child has a need to understand the motivation of actions, to act consciously and reasonably. If a first-grader, when asked why one must sit quietly in class, most often answers: “That’s what Maria Nikolaevna says,” then from a third-grade student you will hear a different answer: “So as not to interfere with others listening to the teacher and understanding what she is explaining.”
The authority of the teacher is an excellent prerequisite for teaching and education in the lower grades. That's right, using it, an experienced teacher successfully develops in his students organization, hard work, a positive attitude towards schoolwork, and the ability to manage their behavior and attention. And to undermine this authority, to debunk the teacher in the eyes of students, to criticize him in their presence is unacceptable.
The problem of the relationship between play and learning is also one of the central problems of psychology of primary school age. Today, two directly opposite approaches to solving it can be distinguished.
Representatives of the first direction argue that with the beginning of primary school age, play leaves the arena of the child’s mental development. One of the famous psychologists even said that by the beginning of school, the game exhausts itself.
Representatives of another point of view claim the exact opposite, basing their evidence directly on the practice of teaching primary schoolchildren: children cannot be taught without the help of play activities.
“Play is a leading activity only in preschool age,” some say. “The game is universal and helps younger schoolchildren master educational activities,” others do not agree with them.
It should be noted that both positions are very vulnerable. For example, refusing to play at primary school age does not allow solving the problem of continuity between preschool and school education, because the use of games in teaching younger schoolchildren helps to build a unified line of learning and development in childhood ontogenesis. At the same time, there are widely known facts when games do not help younger schoolchildren learn, but, on the contrary, take them away from educational tasks. Teachers working in elementary schools are well aware that toys in the classroom often distract children from the lesson, prevent them from concentrating, and prevent them from learning new material.
The younger student does not stop playing when he starts attending school. He enjoys playing during recess and in the yard, at home and even sometimes in class. At the same time, there are almost no adults in the games of younger schoolchildren, unless the latter play the role of students in the game of school. For younger schoolchildren, the rules of the game come to the fore, and even their role-playing games become little similar to the role-playing games of preschoolers. In addition, the latter play a lot and for a long time in games with rules that truly become accessible only at primary school age. However, all these comments concern the so-called leisure (free time) of primary school students. In order to understand the problem of the interaction of play with learning at primary school age, let us turn to the analysis of their play activity.
Psychologists associate the beginning of play activity with the crisis of three years, which opens the preschool period of development. After all, as the game’s development processes are perceived, the game itself changes. Firstly, even during preschool age it turns out to be not a homogeneous activity, but a diverse one - from director’s play, through its figurative and plot-role fabric to playing according to the rules. However, the full development of play activity in preschool age occurs only when all the elements of the identified games are implemented in the late form of director's play. Thus, by primary school age, a child should already be proficient in all basic types of play activities. At the same time, younger schoolchildren, like preschool children, play all types of games. True, now these games are changing qualitatively: from the structure of the game - in it the rules come to the fore, and primary schoolchildren can not only play a game with rules, but also transform any game into a game with rules - to the plot of the game - children act out such plots games that were of little interest to them when they were preschoolers (school games, television show games, and even political events games). And in the plots themselves, younger schoolchildren begin to pay attention to details that previously remained outside the scope of their games. For example, in the “back to school” game, what is important is the content of the lessons, and not the grades and interaction between teacher and students, as with preschoolers.
Other changes to the game (and this is the second one) concern the interaction between its structural elements. So, L.S. Vygotsky noted that in any game there is an imaginary situation, which is set in preschoolers by various external attributes - special clothing or some of its individual elements, the presence of special toys or objects that replace them, a specific place of action, etc. - and the rule. Moreover, the development of the game can be described, in his opinion, by the following formula: imaginary situation/rule - rule/imaginary situation.
Thus, the rule turns out to be the leading one in the games of younger schoolchildren. This means that for primary school students, when implementing their games, there is no need for special attributes, special clothing, or a specific playing space. At the same time, this assumes that behind any rules in the game, younger schoolchildren have an imaginary situation, which, if necessary, can be developed and implemented.
Thirdly, it turns out that in the development of any type of game several stages can be distinguished. Thus, at the very first stage, the child is able to accept an imaginary situation from the outside. At the second stage, he already independently knows how to construct and hold one of the most important components of the game - an imaginary situation. At the third stage, the child is able to implement the game without a detailed imaginary situation.
Let us illustrate this with an example. A child knocks a toy on the table. The mother who entered the room said: “Oh, what a musician we have! You probably play in an orchestra? Is that your drum?” A child who is psychologically ready for play activities and who accepts this imaginary situation will immediately change his behavior. As a rule, he will begin to knock more quietly, while either humming something or trying to adapt to the rhythm of the music broadcast on the radio or TV. What happened to him? He, having accepted an imaginary situation from the outside, transformed his objective activity into a game.
A child who is at the second stage of development of play activity no longer needs prompting from an adult. From the very beginning, he will try not just to knock the toy on the table, but will choose a special toy that could resemble a drummer’s sticks, and his actions (in this case, knocking) will not be random, but obey some kind of logic (motive, rhythm, etc.) .p.) At the same time, many of the children will try to change clothes to imitate a pop costume, or put on some attribute - a tie, bow tie, special beads, etc.
The third stage of development of play activity will be characterized by the fact that the child will be able to portray a drummer without any auxiliary objects, only with the help of his own palms or knees. Sometimes children at this stage will skip some action altogether, telling a playmate or spectator, “Well, I played in the orchestra,” or “It’s like I’m playing the drum,” while continuing to sit in the chair.
D.B. Elkonin, describing the highest level of development of the game, noted that sometimes children do not play so much as talk about the game. This translation of the game into a verbal plan is key to solving the problem of interaction between play and learning in primary school age.
Thus, in this paragraph the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of junior schoolchildren, their gaming and educational activities were given.
So, in modern schools there is an urgent need to expand methodological potential in general, and in active forms of learning in particular. Such active forms of learning include gaming technologies. The effectiveness of play as a means of creative personal development is especially evident in primary school age.
Games are used in educational work in secondary schools, youth centers, and institutions of additional education. The emotionality and excitement of the game, the opportunity to become a hero and experience real adventures with peers make the game attractive to schoolchildren.
Having carried out a content analysis of scientists' approaches to the concept of game, we can conclude that we still do not have a scientific, common definition of game for everyone, and all researchers (biologists, ethnographers, philosophers, psychologists) proceed from an intuitive understanding of the corresponding culture, a certain reality and the place of play that it has in this culture.
Play is the most accessible type of activity for children, a way of processing impressions received from the surrounding world. The game clearly reveals the characteristics of the child’s thinking and imagination, his emotionality, activity, and developing need for communication.
An interesting game increases the child’s mental activity, and he can solve a more difficult problem than in class. But this does not mean that classes should be conducted only in the form of games. Play is only one of the methods, and it gives good results only in combination with others: observations, conversations, reading and others.
While playing, children learn to apply their knowledge and skills in practice and use them in different conditions. A game is an independent activity in which children interact with peers. They are united by a common goal, joint efforts to achieve it, and common experiences. Play experiences leave a deep imprint on the child’s mind and contribute to the formation of good feelings, noble aspirations, and collective life skills.
The game occupies a large place in the system of physical, moral, labor and aesthetic education. A child needs active activities that help improve his vitality, satisfy his interests and social needs.
The game is of great educational importance; it is closely connected with learning in the classroom and with observations of everyday life.
Often a game serves as an occasion for imparting new knowledge and broadening one’s horizons. With the development of interest in the work of adults, in public life, and in the heroic deeds of people, children begin to have their first dreams of a future profession and the desire to imitate their favorite heroes. All this makes play an important means of creating a child’s orientation, which begins to develop in preschool childhood.
Thus, gaming activity is an urgent problem in the learning process.
Chapter 2 Game as a factor in the learning and development of the personality of a primary school student
2.1 The role of the game in the development of the personality of a primary school student
Today, more than ever, society's responsibility for educating the younger generation is widely recognized. The transformation of general education and vocational schools aims to use all opportunities and resources to increase the efficiency of the educational process.
Not all pedagogical resources are used in the field of child upbringing and development. One of these little-used means of education is play.
The game refers to an indirect method of influence: the child does not feel like an object of influence from an adult, but is a full-fledged subject of activity.
Play is a means where education turns into self-education.
Play is closely related to the development of personality, and it is during the period of particularly intensive development in childhood that it acquires special significance.
Play is the first activity that plays a particularly significant role in the development of personality, in the formation of properties and enrichment of its internal content.
Once you enter the game, the corresponding actions are reinforced over and over again; While playing, the child masters them better and better: the game becomes for him a kind of school of life. A child does not play in order to acquire preparation for life, but acquires preparation for life by playing, because he naturally has a need to act out precisely those actions that are newly acquired for him, which have not yet become habits. As a result, he develops during the game and receives preparation for further activities.
In play, a child’s imagination is formed, which includes both a departure from reality and penetration into it. The abilities to transform reality in an image and transform it in action, to change it, are laid down and prepared in play action, and in play the path is paved from feeling to organized action and from action to feeling. In a word, in the game, as in a focus, all aspects of the mental life of the individual are collected, manifested in it and through it are formed in the roles that the child, while playing, assumes; the child’s personality itself expands, enriches, and deepens.
In the game, to one degree or another, the properties necessary for studying at school are formed, which determine readiness for learning.
At different stages of development, children are characterized by different games in natural accordance with the general nature of this stage. By participating in the development of the child, the game itself develops.
At the age of 6-7 years, the child begins a period of change in the leading type
activity - the transition from play to directed learning (in D.B. Elkonin - “crisis of 7 years”). Therefore, when organizing the daily routine and educational activities of junior schoolchildren, it is necessary to create conditions that facilitate a flexible transition from one leading type of activity to another. To solve this problem, you can resort to the widespread use of games in the educational process (cognitive and didactic games) and during recreation.
Young schoolchildren have just emerged from a period in which role-playing was the leading type of activity. The age of 6-10 years is characterized by brightness and spontaneity of perception, ease of entering into images.
Games continue to occupy a significant place in the lives of children of primary school age. If you ask younger schoolchildren what they do besides studying, they will all unanimously answer: “We play.”
The need for play as preparation for work, as an expression of creativity, as training of strengths and abilities, and, finally, as simple entertainment among schoolchildren is very great.
At primary school age, role-playing games continue to occupy a large place. They are characterized by the fact that, while playing, the schoolchild takes on a certain role and performs actions in an imaginary situation, recreating the actions of a specific person.
While playing, children strive to master those personality traits that attract them in real life. Therefore, children like roles that are associated with the manifestation of courage and nobility. In role-playing, they begin to portray themselves, while striving for a position that is not possible in reality.
Thus, role play acts as a means of self-education for the child. In the process of joint activity during role play, children develop ways of relating to each other. Compared to preschoolers, younger schoolchildren spend more time discussing the plot and assigning roles, and choose them more purposefully.
Particular attention should be paid to organizing games aimed at developing the ability to communicate with each other and with other people.
In this case, the teacher must use an individual and personal approach to the child. It is typical that very shy children, who themselves cannot act in scenes because of their shyness, quite easily act out improvised scenes on dolls.
The educational significance of story games for younger schoolchildren is fixed in the fact that they serve as a means of understanding reality, creating a team, fostering curiosity and forming strong-willed feelings of the individual.
Younger schoolchildren understand the conventions of the game and therefore allow a certain leniency in their attitude towards themselves and their comrades in games.
At this age, outdoor games are common. Children enjoy playing with a ball, running, climbing, that is, those games that require quick reactions, strength, and dexterity. Such games usually contain elements of competition, which is very attractive to children.
Children of this age show an interest in board games, as well as didactic and educational ones. They contain the following elements of activity: game task, game motives, educational solutions to problems.
During primary school age, significant changes occur in children's games: gaming interests become more stable, toys lose their attractiveness for children, and sports and constructive games begin to come to the fore. The game is gradually given less time, because... Reading, going to the cinema, and television begin to occupy a large place in the leisure time of younger schoolchildren.
Taking into account the positive significance of play for the all-round development of a primary school child, when developing his daily routine, one should leave enough time for play activities that give the child so much joy. While regulating schoolchildren's games, preventing cases of mischief, excessive physical activity, egocentrism (the desire to always play the main roles), teachers at the same time should not unnecessarily suppress children's initiative and creativity.
A pedagogically well-organized game mobilizes children’s mental capabilities, develops organizational skills, instills self-discipline skills, and brings joy from joint actions.
So, in this paragraph, the role of the game in the development of the personality of younger schoolchildren and the effect of the game on the student’s personality were revealed.
2.2 Educational games as a factor in personality development
Educational games are games during which various skills are developed or improved. The concept of educational games is associated mainly with the childhood period of a person’s life. Children playing educational games train their own thinking, ingenuity, creativity, and imagination. Also, the term educational games can be used to refer to a series of gymnastic exercises with an infant child to develop muscle tone and general training.
The types, nature, content and design are determined by specific educational tasks in relation to the age of children, taking into account their development and interests. The beginning of the use of educational games for pedagogical purposes in the game is allowed at the age of (0)1 year, and depending on the development of the child in each particular case.
Classification :
- by age groups:
- for children from 0 to 1 year;
- for children from 1 year to 3 years;
- for children from 3 years to 7 years;
- for children over 7 years old and adults;
- type:
- modeling mass;
- play dough;
- plasticine;
- paints;
- applications;
- puzzles;
- constructors.
Educational games are all based on a common idea and have characteristic features:
1. Each game is a set of problems that the child solves with the help of cubes, bricks, squares made of cardboard or plastic, parts from a mechanical designer, etc.
2. Tasks are given to the child in various forms: in the form of a model, a flat isometric drawing, a drawing, written or oral instructions, etc., and thus introduce him to different ways of transmitting information.
3. The tasks are arranged approximately in order of increasing complexity, i.e. they use the principle of folk games: from simple to complex.
4. The tasks have a very wide range of difficulties: from those that are sometimes accessible to a 2-3 year old child to those that are beyond the capabilities of the average adult. Therefore, games can excite interest for many years (until adulthood).
5. A gradual increase in the difficulty of tasks in games allows the child to move forward and improve independently, that is, to develop his creative abilities, in contrast to education, where everything is explained and where only performing traits are formed in the child.
6. Therefore, it is impossible to explain to a child the method and procedure for solving problems and cannot be suggested either by word, gesture, or look. By building a model and implementing a solution practically, the child learns to take everything himself from reality.
7. You cannot demand and ensure that the child solves the problem on the first try. It may not have grown or matured yet, and you need to wait a day, a week, a month or even more.
8. The solution to the problem appears before the child not in the abstract form of the answer to a mathematical problem, but in the form of a drawing, pattern or structure made of cubes, bricks, construction kit parts, i.e. in the form of visible and tangible things. This allows you to visually compare the “task” with the “solution” and check the accuracy of the task yourself.
9. Most educational games are not limited to the proposed tasks, but allow children and parents to create new versions of tasks and even come up with new educational games, i.e., engage in creative activities of a higher order.
10. Educational games allow everyone to rise to the “ceiling” of their capabilities, where development is most successful. In educational games - this is their main feature - they combine one of the basic principles of learning from simple to complex with the very important principle of creative activity independently according to their abilities, when a child can rise to the “ceiling” of his abilities.
This union made it possible to solve several problems in the game related to the development of abilities:
firstly, educational games can provide “food” for the development of creative abilities from a very early age;
secondly, their stepping stone tasks always create conditions that precede the development of abilities;
thirdly, by rising independently each time to his “ceiling”, the child develops most successfully;
fourthly, educational games can be very diverse in their content and, moreover, like any games, they do not tolerate coercion and create an atmosphere of free and joyful creativity;
fifthly, by playing these games with their children, fathers and mothers quietly acquire a very important skill - to restrain themselves, not to interfere with the child’s thinking and making decisions, not to do for him what he can and should do himself. The five points listed above correspond to the five basic conditions for the development of creative abilities.
It is thanks to this that educational games create a unique microclimate for the development of the creative sides of the intellect.
At the same time, different games develop different intellectual qualities: attention, memory, especially visual; the ability to find dependencies and patterns, classify and systematize material; the ability to combine, i.e. the ability to create new combinations from existing elements, parts, objects; ability to find errors and shortcomings; spatial representation and imagination, the ability to foresee the results of one’s actions. Taken together, these qualities apparently constitute what is called intelligence, ingenuity, and a creative way of thinking.
So, in this paragraph the concept of educational games, their classification and scope of application of educational games were revealed.
2.3 Didactic games as a teaching method
Didactic games are a type of educational activities organized in the form of educational games that implement a number of principles of gaming, active learning and are distinguished by the presence of rules, a fixed structure of gaming activity and an assessment system, one of the methods of active learning. A didactic game is a collective, purposeful educational activity when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning. A didactic game is an active educational activity involving simulation of the systems, phenomena, and processes being studied.
A distinctive feature of didactic games is the presence of a game situation, which is usually used as the basis of the method. The activities of the participants in the game are formalized, that is, there are rules, a strict evaluation system, and a procedure or regulation is provided. It should be noted that didactic games differ from business games primarily in the absence of a chain of decisions.
Didactic games differ in educational content, cognitive activity of children, game actions and rules, organization and relationships of children, and the role of the teacher. The listed features are inherent in all games, but in some, some are more pronounced, in others, others.
Various collections indicate many (about 500) didactic games, but there is still no clear classification or grouping of games by type. Most often, games are correlated with the content of training and education: games for sensory education, verbal games, games for familiarization with nature, for the formation of mathematical concepts, etc. Sometimes games are correlated with the material: games with folk didactic toys, board and printed games.
This grouping of games emphasizes their focus on learning and cognitive activity of children, but does not sufficiently reveal the basics of a didactic game - the characteristics of children’s play activities, game tasks, game actions and rules, the organization of children’s lives, and the teacher’s guidance.
1) Travel games.
2) Errand games.
3) Guessing games.
4) Riddle games.
5) Conversation games (dialogue games).
Travel games have similarities with a fairy tale, its development, miracles. The travel game reflects real facts or events, but reveals the ordinary through the unusual, the simple through the mysterious, the difficult through the surmountable, the necessary through the interesting. All this happens in play, in play actions, it becomes close to the child and makes him happy. The purpose of the travel game is to enhance the impression, to give the cognitive content a slightly fabulous unusualness, to draw children’s attention to what is nearby, but is not noticed by them. Travel games sharpen attention, observation, understanding of game tasks, make it easier to overcome difficulties and achieve success.
A didactic game contains a complex of various activities of children: thoughts, feelings, experiences, empathy, searches for active ways to solve a game problem, their subordination to the conditions and circumstances of the game, children’s relationships in the game.
Travel games are always somewhat romantic. This is what arouses interest and active participation in the development of the game’s plot, enrichment of game actions, the desire to master the rules of the game and get a result: solve a problem, find out something, learn something.
The role of the Teacher in the game is complex, it requires knowledge, readiness to answer children’s questions, while playing with them, and to conduct the learning process unnoticed.
Isn't the term “travel” difficult for children? It can be explained by the simpler word "hike". But this is not necessary: the word “travel” appears in many programs on radio and television that are attractive to children, and it lives in the everyday life of adults who make many trips, sometimes together with children. This is our modernity. A travel game is a game of action, thought, and feelings of a child, a form of satisfying his needs for knowledge.
The name of the game and the formulation of the game task should contain “calling words” that arouse children’s interest and active play activity. In a travel game, many ways of revealing cognitive content are used in combination with gaming activities: setting problems, explaining how to solve them, sometimes developing travel routes, solving problems step by step, the joy of solving them, meaningful rest. The journey game sometimes includes a song, riddles, gifts and much more.
Travel games are sometimes incorrectly identified with excursions. Their significant difference lies in the fact that an excursion is a form of direct instruction and a type of lesson. The purpose of an excursion is most often to get acquainted with something that requires direct observation and comparison with what is already known. The content of the excursion is planned and has a clear structure of the lesson: goal, task, explanation, observation or practical work, result.
Sometimes a travel game is identified with a walk. But a walk most often has health-improving purposes; sometimes outdoor games are played during the walk. Cognitive content may also be present during a walk, but it is not the main one, but an accompanying one.
Errand games have the same structural elements as travel games, but they are simpler in content and shorter in duration. They are based on actions with objects, toys, and verbal instructions. The game task and game actions in them are based on a proposal to do something: “Gather all the red objects (or toys) in a basket,” “Arrange the rings by size,” “Take out round-shaped objects from the bag.”
Guessing Games"What would be..?" or “What would I do...”, “Who would I like to be and why?”, “Who would I choose as a friend?” etc. Sometimes a picture can serve as the beginning of such a game.
The didactic content of the game lies in the fact that children are given a task and a situation is created that requires comprehension of the subsequent action. The game task is inherent in the title itself: “What would happen..?” or “What would I do...”. Play actions are determined by the task and require children to perform an expedient intended action in accordance with
or with the set conditions created by the circumstances.
Starting the game, the teacher says: “The game is called “What would happen..?” I will start, and each of you will continue. Listen: “What would happen if the electricity suddenly went out in the whole city?”
Children make assumptions that make statements or generalized evidence. The first include assumptions: “It would become dark”, “It would be impossible to play”, “You cannot read, draw”, etc., which children express based on their experience. More meaningful answers: (“The factories would not be able to work, for example, bake bread,” “Trams, trolleybuses would stop, and people would be late for work,” etc.
These games require the ability to correlate knowledge with circumstances and establish causal relationships. They also contain a competitive element: “Who can figure it out faster?” Older children love such games and consider them “difficult games” that require the ability to “think.”
Games like “What would I do if I were a wizard” are games that encourage dreams to come true and awaken the imagination. They are played similarly to the previous game. The teacher begins: “If I were a wizard, I would make sure that all people were* healthy.” . .
Games in which the seeds of the future ripen are useful. Their pedagogical value is that children begin to think, learn to listen to each other
friend.
Riddle games. The emergence of mysteries goes back a long way. The riddles were created by the people themselves and reflect the wisdom of the people. Riddles were part of rites, rituals, and included in holidays. They were used to test knowledge and resourcefulness. This is the obvious pedagogical focus and popularity of riddles as smart entertainment. Currently, riddles, telling and guessing, are considered as a type of educational game.
The main feature of a riddle is an intricate description that needs to be deciphered (guessed and proven); this description is concise and often takes the form of a question or ends with one. The content of the riddles is the surrounding reality: social and natural phenomena, objects of labor and everyday life, flora and fauna. With the development of society, the content and themes of riddles change significantly. They reflect the achievements of science, technology, and culture.
The main feature of the riddles is the logical task. The methods for constructing logical tasks are different, but they all activate the child’s mental activity. The need to compare, remember, think, guess - brings the joy of mental work. Solving riddles develops the ability to analyze, generalize, and develops the ability to reason, draw conclusions, and draw conclusions.
Conversation games(dialogues). The conversation game is based on communication between the teacher and the children, the children with the teacher and the children with each other. This communication has a special character of play-based learning and play activities for children. Its distinctive features are the spontaneity of experiences, interest, goodwill, belief in the “truth of the game,” and the joy of the game. In a game-conversation, the teacher often starts not from himself, but from a character close to the children, and thereby not only preserves playful communication, but also increases his joy and desire to repeat the game. However, the conversation game is fraught with the danger of reinforcing direct teaching techniques.
The educational and educational value lies in the content of the plot - the theme of the game, in arousing interest in certain phenomena of the surrounding life reflected in the game. The cognitive content of the game does not lie “on the surface”: it needs to be found, extracted - made a discovery and, as a result, learn something.
The value of the conversation game lies in the fact that it makes demands on the activation of emotional and mental processes: the unity of words, actions, thoughts and imagination of children. The conversation game develops the ability to listen and hear the teacher’s questions, children’s questions and answers, the ability to focus on the content of the conversation, complement what was said, and express a judgment. All this characterizes the active search for a solution to the problem posed by the game. Of considerable importance is the ability to participate in a conversation, which characterizes the level of good manners.
The main means of a conversation game is a word, a verbal image, an introductory story about something. The result of the game is the pleasure received by the children.
Conducting a game-conversation requires great skill from the teacher, a combination of teaching and play. The first requirement for managing such a game is to identify “small doses” of cognitive material, but sufficient to make the game interesting for children. Cognitive material should be determined by the theme - the content of the game, and the game should correspond to the possibility of assimilating this content without disturbing the interest of children and curtailing game activities. One of the conditions for conducting a game-conversation is the creation of a friendly environment. The best time to play is the second half of the day, when there is a natural decline in new impressions, when there are no more noisy games and various emotions.
To summarize, we can say that in this paragraph the definition of didactic games was revealed, their classification was given, and the scope of their application in the process of teaching primary schoolchildren.
2.4 Sample program for conducting a developmental lesson using game teaching methods
An analysis of pedagogical experience shows that various types of games are quite actively used in the educational process: didactic games compiled by adults, which contribute in an entertaining way to the formation of the child’s cognitive activity; board-printed and word games; games with objects (toys, natural materials, etc.); outdoor activities (sports games and exercises) with a focus on physical development, etc. However, gaming activities are not used effectively enough for the socialization of younger schoolchildren and are considered as an additional pedagogical tool. This dictates the need to organize gaming activities in which primary schoolchildren could most fully enrich social experience and realize their creative potential, thanks to which their organic entry into society will occur.
To use gaming activities in working with children of primary school age, it is necessary to draw up a lesson program, for example:
| Month | Game focus | Types of games |
| October | Games for getting to know each other and building trust | “Rope”, “Cobweb”, “Who Am I”, “Locomotive”, “Train of Virtues”, “Beep” |
| November | Games to establish trusting relationships and to develop humanistic feelings | “Tender steps”, “How good I am”, “Press conference”, “On the ship” |
| December | Games to develop a culture of behavior and maintain a positive emotional background | “The Life of Adults”, “Customs”, “Understand Me”, “Sculptor”, “Mime Artists”, “Window”, “Impromptu Theatre” |
| January | Games for cooperation, team building | “Golden Key”, “Bridge”, “Towers”, “Siamese Twins”, |
| February | Games for cooperation, formation of a culture of behavior | “Baba Yaga”, “Concerted Movements”, “Back to Back”, “Platforms”, “Figures”, “Rock” |
| March | Games for collective trust, attention, relaxation, creating a positive mood | “Sea, Land, Sky”, “Thunderstorm”, “Swamp”, “Question to a Neighbor”, “14 Objects”, “Laughter” |
Here is a list of some games that can be used when working with children of primary school age:
1. Games aimed at developing information and communication skills :
"Dialogue"
Target : develop the ability to recognize and creatively execute various expressive innovations.
First, the teacher explains to the children the meaning of the word “dialogue” (a conversation between two or more people). Then he offers to listen to a funny dialogue, expressively reading V. Lugovoy’s poem “Once upon a time.”
It turns out which word is constantly repeated by one of the participants in the dialogue “forgot”. The teacher suggests playing a dialogue: he reads the first line of the poem and all the questions (strict intonation), and the students repeat the word “forgot” in chorus (whining intonation). At the end of the dialogue, the “forgetful” one cries loudly.
The game can be varied during the lesson.
1. For example, a teacher, having divided the class into two groups, introduces two roles - the questioner and the answerer, and the strict and whiny intonation is preserved. Questions and answers are recited in chorus and accompanied by gestures and facial expressions.
2. A forgetful hero is chosen from among the children in the class. For example, it could be a child who most artistically portrays the forgetful hero of the dialogue. Questions are asked in chorus by the children of each row (one row - “Where did you live?”, another row - “Where were you?”, etc.). Various intonations are offered.
3. Theatricalization of the poem by two students at the blackboard (after the children remember the lines of the dialogue).
This game trains children in expressive recitation, develops the ability to listen to others and understand them. This dialogue can be called a joke dialogue, which develops a sense of humor in children and causes healthy laughter. The following conditions contribute to the successful implementation of this game: the presence of jokes and humor in the content of the text of the poem; preliminary preparatory conversation with students; inclusion of the teacher in the game process.
"Continue the story."
Goals:
1. Develop speech and creative imagination of children;
2. Stimulate theatrical and plastic creativity;
3. Learn to correlate the means of verbal and nonverbal communication.
teacher. Guys, listen to an unusual fairy tale, which is not only told, but also shown using gestures. (Tells a fairy tale, accompanying the story with gestures).
Once upon a time there lived a Bunny. (Clenches his right hand into a fist, and straightens his second and third fingers upward.) The bunny loved to walk. (Wiggles his “ears” fingers, creating the illusion of movement.) One day he went into someone else’s garden and saw that wonderful cabbage had grown in the beds. (Clenches his left hand into a fist - this is "head of cabbage".) The Bunny couldn’t resist and went to the cabbage. (Right hand With with protruding “ears” move your left hand, clenched into a fist.) I sniffed it - it smells so delicious! (Sniffs noisily.) I really want to try at least a small piece. (Imitates noisy biting And chewing.) Oh, how delicious. (Licks his lips.) Oh, how I want more (He circles his right hand around his left - “head of cabbage.”) Just when the Bunny wanted to take another bite, out of nowhere, the Dog runs. (Palm of the right hand With With fingers pressed tightly, he places it with an edge, and bends the second finger. the first one is raised up.) The Dog smelled the Bunny and how it barked (3 imitates, simultaneously moving his little finger down - The dog opens its mouth when barking.) The Bunny got scared and rushed away. (Describes with his right hand - Bunny's head circles several times.) I ran for a long time from Dogs Bunny. (Breathes like , after running.) Suddenly he sees a huge lake ahead. (Closes two hands in front of chest, forming a circle.) And a Duck is swimming on the lake. (Bends his right arm at the elbow And kitty you, fingers extended And closed.) From time to time the Duck dives into the water and takes out bugs from there. (Makes diving movements with his hand.)
- Hello, Duck! - says Bunny.
But the Duck doesn’t hear, he swims. ( Makes appropriate hand movements).
- Hello, Duck! - said the Bunny louder.
The duck doesn't hear again, he catches insects.
- Hello, Duck! – Bunny said very loudly.
Then the Duck turned to him and said:
I really don’t like it when people speak quickly, indistinctly and inexpressively. In such cases, I immediately pretend to be deaf. Don't be offended. Only the third time you greeted me so well that I was satisfied. Tell me about yourself: who are you? Where are you from? Where are you heading? Yes, tell it properly, don’t mince words, don’t mumble!
Teacher. I forgot the ending of the fairy tale. Therefore, it needs to be invented. But it will be much more interesting to create your own film studio and make a film. We will film a continuation of the fairy tale. What do you think is needed for this? What professions do people make films? What functions do people in these professions perform? What objects do they use in their work? What will the name of our film studio be?
Then the roles of scriptwriters, director, actors, cameramen, etc. are distributed in the class on a competitive basis.
When children compose the ending of a fairy tale, new characters can be introduced. After the roles are assigned, you can conduct a short rehearsal. Children who do not play an active role are offered the roles of experts and film buffs, who, upon completion of the fairy tale film, give it an evaluative description.
This game not only encourages children to fantasize, but also develops the ability to use gestures and facial expressions. A fairy-tale situation requires expressive and intelligible speech, which forces children to monitor their articulation in dialogue scenes. When organizing work to guide creative play, it is necessary to provide for the content of the conversation with children about professions related to cinematography; possible responses of children; think over ways to individually influence the children. In addition, this game contributes to the formation of a culture of behavior and friendly collective relationships.
2. Games aimed at developing regulatory and communication skills:
"School of Trust"
Target: develop the ability to trust, help and support fellow communicators.
Students are divided into pairs: “blind” and “guide”. One closes his eyes, and the other leads him around the room, gives him the opportunity to touch various objects, helps him avoid various collisions with other couples, gives appropriate explanations regarding their movement, etc. how to give commands? It is best to stand behind your back, at some distance. Then students change roles. Each of the students thus goes through a kind of school of trusting their friend.
At the end of the game, the teacher asks the children to answer who felt safe and confident, who had the desire to completely trust their partner. Why?
"Tales from the Garbage"
Goals:
1. Develop the ability to get used to the role and fantasize;
2. Learn to use your individual abilities when solving joint problems.
The teacher places empty boxes, paper bags, crayons, wood shavings, plastic bags, etc. on the table as trash (acting attributes).
Teacher. This incident happened in winter. The garbage has rebelled. It was cold, hungry, and boring for him to lie in the landfill. And the inhabitants of the landfill decided to help each other... Imagine, guys, and come up with a fairy tale.
Children begin to lift empty boxes and make a theater out of them. Crayons turn into people; shavings - in the hair; plastic bags - into beautiful napkins and a curtain for the stage. Plastic boxes turn into little animals. And a feast begins for the whole world...
Having created such a plot, the children get used to the roles, distributing them among themselves, and begin to play small scenes that can be combined into one big fairy tale.
3. Games focused on the development of affective and communication skills:
Meeting of fairy-tale heroes"
Goals:
1. Develop the ability to share your feelings, interests, and moods with communication partners.
2. Learn to evaluate the results of joint communication.
3. Form new experience of relationships between children.
The teacher selects a fairy-tale character for each child who has opposite personal qualities. For example, a child with conflict is given the role of a character who is friends with everyone and helps (Cinderella, Little Thumb), a child with low self-esteem is given the role of a hero whom everyone admires (for example, Ilya Muromets), an active child is given a role that involves restrictions on activity (glass little man, steadfast tin soldier), etc. Fairy-tale characters can be fictitious.
The “wizard” gives each child five “lives,” which they will lose if they change the behavior of their heroes.
Children sit in a circle and open a meeting of fairy-tale characters. Children can choose the topic for conversation themselves. They come up with a fairy tale for their heroes and act it out. After the game there is a discussion.
Teacher (asking questions). Describe how you feel in your new role. What prevented you from maintaining a certain style of behavior? Can you behave like your hero in real life? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each hero?
In addition to developing communication skills, this game is also well suited for correcting negative behavioral reactions.
Maternal care"
Target: develop the ability to show sensitivity, responsiveness, and empathy to those with whom you communicate.
Students tell and act out cases known to them of domestic and wild animals caring for their young, and parents protecting their children. Masks may be used in the game.
In a general conversation with the teacher, children conclude that people should treat pets in much the same way as their parents would treat them.
"The Last Meeting"
Target: develop the ability to express your experiences and feelings towards your communication comrades.
Before the game starts, the teacher asks the children to close their eyes and imagine a situation where, due to certain objective circumstances, they have to part with their friends (graduating from school, moving to another city, etc.). . There was a lot of good and bad between them, there was also something that they did not have time or did not want to say or wish to each other in time. Now such an opportunity is presented.
In the game, children express their wishes, ask for forgiveness, and talk about their feelings for their comrades.
Based on the above, when working with children of school age, it is necessary to develop a program of games aimed at familiarizing themselves with various social institutions, social institutions and socially recognized measures of the relationship between a person and society; to inform about the content of social roles with the use of: corresponding things-attributes and creation. As a result of these activities, children will accumulate social knowledge and information about the norms of modern society.
It must be remembered that the environment acts as a student’s objective and practical environment, influencing the deepening of knowledge of reality, the formation of socially significant relationships between the child and society, and ensuring creative self-realization in play activities.
The constant participation of schoolchildren in varied and meaningful play activities unites the team, ensures the systematic emergence of relationships of responsible dependence, and allows younger schoolchildren to establish social-normative relationships with peers; with other people.
A special role must be given to encouraging creative activity, which involves modifying the environment under the influence of the child and the teacher. In other words, it is necessary to stimulate initiative in younger schoolchildren and the desire to show their creativity in the game.
Thus, in this paragraph, an approximate program for conducting a developmental lesson was given, and exemplary educational and didactic games were considered.
So, today, more than ever, society’s responsibility for educating the younger generation is widely recognized. The transformation of general education and vocational schools aims to use all opportunities and resources to increase the efficiency of the educational process.
Not all pedagogical resources are used in the field of child upbringing and development. One of these little-used means of education is play.
But only after going through the school of role-playing play can a child move on to systematic and purposeful learning.
Only in play does the ability for active imagination arise, voluntary memorization and many other mental qualities are formed.
The game teaches, shapes, changes, educates. Play, as the outstanding Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky wrote, leads to development. This allows us to conclude that play activity is of great importance and plays a huge role in the mental development of a schoolchild.
Once you enter the game, the corresponding actions are reinforced over and over again; While playing, the child masters them better and better: the game becomes for him a kind of school of life. A child does not play in order to acquire preparation for life, but acquires preparation for life by playing, because he naturally has a need to act out precisely those actions that are newly acquired for him, which have not yet become habits. As a result, he develops during the game and receives preparation for further activities.
He plays because he develops and develops because he plays. Development practice game.
The game prepares children to continue the work of the older generation, forming and developing in them the abilities and qualities necessary for the activities that they will have to perform in the future.
Didactic games can be used to improve the performance of first grade students.
Taking into account the positive significance of play for the all-round development of a primary school child, when developing his daily routine, one should leave enough time for play activities that give the child so much joy.
Conclusion
Play is not the predominant type of activity in preschool age. Only in theories that consider the child not as a being who satisfies the basic requirements of life, but as a being who lives in search of pleasures, strives to satisfy these pleasures, can the idea arise that the children's world is a play world. Is it possible for a child’s behavior to be such that he always acts according to meaning? Is it possible for a preschooler to behave so dryly that he doesn’t behave the way he wants with candy, just because of the thought that he should behave differently? Such obedience to rules is a completely impossible thing in life; in the game it becomes possible; Thus, play creates the child’s zone of proximal development. In play, the child is always above his average age, above his usual everyday behavior; In the game he seems to be head and shoulders above himself. The game in condensed form contains, as if in the focus of a magnifying glass, all development trends; The child in the game seems to be trying to make a leap above the level of his usual behavior.
The relationship of play to development should be compared with the relationship of learning to development. Behind the game are changes in needs and changes in consciousness of a more general nature. Play is a source of development and creates a zone of proximal development. Action in an imaginary field, in an imaginary situation, the creation of an arbitrary intention, the formation of a life plan, volitional motives - all this arises in the game and puts it at the highest level of development, lifts it to the crest of a wave, makes it the ninth wave of development of preschool age, which rises throughout deep waters, but relatively calm.
Essentially, a child moves through play activities. Only in this sense can play be called a leading activity, that is, one that determines the development of the child.
At school age, play does not die, but penetrates into the relationship to reality. It has its internal continuation in schooling and work, compulsory activities with the rule.
A pedagogical axiom is the position according to which the development of intellectual abilities, independence and initiative, efficiency and responsibility of students and schoolchildren can only be achieved by providing them with genuine freedom of action in communication. Involving them in activities in which they would not only understand and test what is offered to them as an object of assimilation, but would also actually become convinced that their success in self-development, their fate as a specialist initially depends on their own efforts and decisions.
Firstly, the universality of children's play is determined by the fact that it reflects the totality of the basic forms of human activity. Indeed, activity is carried out in the game (albeit, however, still in its incomplete structure, not as productive, purposeful activity). In the game, communication and relationships take place (both role-playing and real). It cannot be denied that play is also a form of manifestation (and development) of consciousness, cognition, and thinking. For example, just replacing real characters and objects of activity with conventional objects is worth it, because replacement is one of the central mechanisms of mental activity. What about playing the plot in the mind, and reflection and evaluation of the performance of game actions and relationships of one’s own and one’s partners, in particular from the point of view of their correspondence to the plot, real actions and relationships reproduced in the game, etc.? And in this sense, those who interpret the game as a form of implementation and development of mental activity are right. So, we can talk about children's play as a special universality and, above all, the presence and combination in it of such forms of activity as activity, communication and relationships, cognition.
Secondly, the game is distinguished by its non-finiteness, which is one of the specific features of children's play. The game is potentially endless. It does not have a predetermined product, or even if some target content is conceived, it, as a rule, is either not implemented or is transformed during the game and does not determine its completion. A pre-conceived plot unfolds, varies, enriches, transforms, changes, can lead to a new storyline, etc. Thus, we have the right to say that such an essential need, such an essential property of a person as infinity, is realized in the game.
Thirdly, the game reflects the ability to identify and separate, what we call the ability to “be yourself and others.” This occurs even in the simplest role-playing activities. “I am a bunny,” says the boy and performs actions corresponding to this role. At the same time, he never ceases to recognize himself as a real boy, Petya. Identification with the role and awareness of oneself and others as real subjects is the most important feature of the game itself. That is why the game intertwines role-playing actions and relationships with real ones. “I will be a mother, and you will be a daughter,” the plot of a common game is conceived - and already here the two-dimensionality of awareness of oneself and the other is manifested: a combination of role-playing and real characters. In this sense, it is legitimate to believe that the game realizes the need and ability of identification and isolation, the ability to “be yourself and others.”
The first chapter emphasized that play arises from the child’s need to learn about the world around him, and to live in this world as adults do. Play, as a way of understanding reality, is one of the main conditions for the development of children's imagination. It is not imagination that gives rise to play, but the activity of a child exploring the world that creates his fantasy, his imagination, his independence. The game obeys the laws of reality, and its product can be the world of children's fantasy, children's creativity. The game forms cognitive activity and self-regulation, allows you to develop attention and memory, and creates conditions for the development of abstract thinking. The game is a favorite form of activity for younger schoolchildren. In play, children master game roles, enrich their social experience, and learn to adapt to unfamiliar situations.
The game as a psychological problem still provides a lot of facts for scientific thought; there is still much to be discovered by scientists in this area. Play as a problem of education requires tireless, daily thinking of parents, and requires creativity and imagination from teachers. Raising a child is a great responsibility, a lot of work and great creative joy, giving awareness of the usefulness of our existence on earth.
The objectives of the final qualifying work were completed, the goal was achieved, the hypothesis was confirmed that the development of the personality of younger schoolchildren through games will be effective provided:
Systematic use of gaming methods and techniques in the educational process;
Taking into account the age and psychological characteristics of children of primary school age;
Creating comfortable psychological and pedagogical conditions for the formation of a harmoniously developed personality.
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Each age stage is characterized by a special position of the child in the system of relations accepted in a given society. In accordance with this, the lives of children of different ages are filled with specific content: special relationships with people around them and special activities leading to a given stage of development. Let us remind you that L.S. Vygotsky identified the following types of leading activity:
infants - direct emotional communication;
early childhood - manipulative activity;
preschoolers - play activities;
younger schoolchildren - educational activities;
teenagers are socially recognized and socially approved activities;
high school students - educational and professional activities.
Features of voluntary memory of primary schoolchildren. The intention to remember this or that material does not yet determine the content of the mnemonic task that the subject has to solve. To do this, he must highlight a specific subject of memorization in the object (text), which represents a special task. Some schoolchildren highlight the cognitive content of the text as such a goal of memorization (about 20% of third grade schoolchildren), others - its plot (23%), and still others do not highlight a specific subject of memorization at all. Thus, the task is transformed into different mnemonic tasks, which can be explained by differences in educational motivation and the level of formation of goal-setting mechanisms.
Only in the case when the student is able to independently determine the content of a mnemonic task, find adequate means of transforming the material and consciously control their use, can we talk about mnemonic activity that is arbitrary in all its links. About 10% of students are at this level of memory development by the time they graduate from primary school. Approximately the same number of schoolchildren independently determine a mnemonic task, but do not yet have sufficient knowledge of how to solve it. The remaining 80% of schoolchildren either do not understand the mnemonic task at all, or the content of the material is not imposed on them.
Any attempts to ensure the development of memory in different ways without the real formation of self-regulation (primarily goal setting) give an unstable effect. Solving the problem of memory in primary school age is possible only with the systematic formation of all components of educational activity.
The thinking of children of primary school age differs significantly from the thinking of preschoolers: so if the thinking of a preschooler is characterized by such quality as involuntariness, low controllability both in setting a mental problem and in solving it, they more often and more easily think about what is more interesting to them, what they are fascinated, then younger schoolchildren as a result of studying at school, when it is necessary to regularly perform tasks without fail, learn to control their thinking, think when necessary Formation of educational activities of schoolchildren. Ed. V.V. Davydova et al. M., 1982..
In many ways, the formation of such voluntary, controlled thinking is facilitated by the teacher’s instructions in the lesson, encouraging children to think.
When communicating in primary school, children develop conscious critical thinking. This happens due to the fact that in the class, ways to solve problems are discussed, various solution options are considered, the teacher constantly requires students to justify, tell, prove the correctness of their judgment, i.e. Requires children to solve problems independently.
The ability to plan one’s actions is also actively developed in younger schoolchildren in the process of schooling; studies encourage children to first trace a plan for solving a problem, and only then proceed to its practical solution.
A junior schoolchild regularly and without fail joins the system when he needs to reason, compare different judgments, and make inferences.
Therefore, at primary school age, the third type of thinking begins to develop intensively: verbal-logical abstract thinking, in contrast to the visual-effective and visual-imaginative thinking of preschool children.
In primary school lessons, when solving educational problems, children develop such methods of logical thinking as comparison, associated with the selection and verbal designation of various properties and signs of generalization in an object, associated with abstraction from non-essential features of the subject and combining them based on the commonality of essential features Zak A .Z. “Development of mental abilities of junior schoolchildren” - M: Education, 1994.
As children study at school, their thinking becomes more voluntary, more programmable, more conscious, more planned, i.e. it becomes verbal - logical.
Of course, other types of thinking develop further at this age, but the main focus falls on the formation of reasoning techniques and inferences.
Teachers know that the thinking of children of the same age is quite different; some children solve problems of a practical nature more easily when it is necessary to use techniques of visually effective thinking. Others find it easier to complete tasks related to the need to imagine and imagine any states or phenomena; a third of children reason more easily, build reasoning and inferences, which allows them to more successfully solve mathematical problems, derive general rules and use them in specific situations V.V. Davydov “Problems of developmental education: experience of theoretical and experimental psychological research” - M: Pedagogy, 1986 - 240 pages.
And finally, if a child successfully solves both easy and complex problems within the framework of the corresponding type of thinking and can even help other children in solving easy problems, explain the reason for the mistakes he made, and can also come up with easy problems himself, he has the third level of development in the corresponding type of thinking .
The presence of one or another type of thinking in a child can be judged by how he solves problems corresponding to this type, so if when solving easy problems on the practical transformation of objects, or on operating with their images, or on reasoning, the child does not understand their conditions well and gets confused and is lost when searching for their solutions, then in this case it is considered that he has the first level of development in the corresponding type of thinking.
If a child successfully solves easy problems intended for the use of one type of thinking or another, but finds it difficult to solve more complex problems, in particular due to the fact that it is not possible to imagine this entire solution, since the ability to plan is not sufficiently developed, then in this case it is believed that he has the second level of development in the corresponding type of thinking.
For the mental development of a primary school student, three types of thinking need to be used. Zak A.Z. “Development of mental abilities of younger schoolchildren” - M: Education 1994. Moreover, with the help of each of them, the child better develops certain qualities of the mind. Thus, solving problems with the help of visually effective thinking allows students to develop skills in managing their actions, making purposeful, rather than random and chaotic attempts to solve problems.
This feature of this type of thinking is a consequence of the fact that with its help problems are solved in which objects can be picked up in order to change their states and properties, as well as arrange them in space.
Since when working with objects it is easier for a child to observe his actions to change them, then in this case it is easier to control actions, stop practical attempts if their result does not meet the requirements of the task, or, on the contrary, force himself to complete the attempt, until a certain result is obtained, and to abandon its implementation without knowing the result.
And so, with the help of visually effective thinking, it is more convenient to develop in children such an important quality of mind as the ability to act purposefully when solving problems, to consciously manage and control their actions.
The uniqueness of visual-figurative thinking lies in the fact that when solving problems with its help, a person does not have the ability to actually change images and ideas. This allows you to develop different plans to achieve a goal, mentally coordinate these plans to find the best one. Since when solving problems with the help of visual-figurative thinking, a person has to operate only with images of objects (i.e., operate with objects only in the mental plane), then in this case it is more difficult to manage one’s actions, control them and realize them than in the case when there is the ability to operate with the objects themselves V.V. Davydov “Problems of developmental education: experience of theoretical and experimental psychological research” - M: Pedagogy, 1986 - 240 pages.
Therefore, the main goal of work on the development of visual-imaginative thinking cannot be to use it to develop the ability to manage one’s actions when solving problems.
The main goal of correcting visual-figurative thinking in children is to use it to develop the ability to consider different paths, different plans, different options for achieving a goal, different ways of solving problems.
Features of motivation for educational activities in younger schoolchildren.
At the first stages of education, in primary school age, curiosity, direct interest in the environment, on the one hand, and the desire to perform socially significant activities, on the other, determine the positive attitude of students towards learning and the associated emotional experiences about the grades received. Lagging behind in learning and poor grades are most often experienced acutely and to the point of tears by children. Self-esteem in primary school age is formed mainly under the influence of teacher assessments. Children attach particular importance to their intellectual capabilities and how they are assessed by others. It is important for kids that a positive assessment is generally recognized Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: T.1,2; Per. with him. / Ed. B.M.Velichkovsky. - M.: Pedagogy, 1986..
The attitude of parents and teachers towards the child determines his attitude towards himself (self-esteem) and self-respect. All this affects the development of personality.
The level of aspirations is influenced by successes and failures in previous activities. A student who often fails expects further failure, and vice versa, success in previous activities predisposes him to expect success in the future.
The predominance of failure in the educational activities of lagging children, constantly reinforced by low assessments of their work by the teacher, steadily leads to an increase in self-doubt and feelings of inferiority in such children.
The problem of learning and mental development is one of the oldest psychological and pedagogical problems. There is, perhaps, not a single significant didactic theorist or child psychologist who would not try to answer the question of the relationship between these two processes. The issue is complicated by the fact that the categories of training and development are different. The effectiveness of teaching, as a rule, is measured by the quantity and quality of acquired knowledge, and the effectiveness of development is measured by the level that the students’ abilities reach, i.e., by how developed the students’ basic forms of mental activity are, allowing them to quickly, deeply and correctly navigate the phenomena of the environment reality.
It has long been noted that you can know a lot, but at the same time not show any creative abilities, that is, not be able to independently understand a new phenomenon, even from a relatively well-known field of science.
Progressive teachers of the past, especially K. D. Ushinsky,
raised and resolved this question in their own way. K. D. Ushinsky especially advocated that education be developmental. Developing a method of teaching primary literacy, new for his time, he wrote: “I do not prefer the sound method because children learn to read and write more quickly with it; but because, while successfully achieving its special goal, this method at the same time gives independent activity to the child, constantly exercises the child’s attention, memory and reason, and when a book is then opened in front of him, he is already significantly prepared to understand what he is reading, and, most importantly, his interest in learning is not suppressed, but rather aroused” (1949, vol. 6, p. 272).
During the time of K.D. Ushinsky, the penetration of scientific knowledge into primary school programs was extremely limited. That is why then there was a tendency to develop the child’s mind on the basis of mastering not scientific concepts, but special logical exercises, which were introduced into primary education by K. D. Ushinsky. By this, he sought to at least to some extent compensate for the lack of mental development based on existing programs that limited training to purely empirical concepts and practical skills.
To this day, such exercises are used when teaching language. By themselves, they have no developmental significance. Typically, logic exercises come down to classification exercises. Since in this case the household objects surrounding the child are subject to classification, it is, as a rule, based on purely external signs. For example, children divide objects into furniture and dishes or vegetables and fruits. When classifying an item as furniture, it is essential that these are furnishings, and as utensils, they are used for preparing food or consuming it. The concept of “vegetables” includes both fruits and roots; thereby removing the essential features of these concepts, based on external properties or methods of use. Such a classification can have an inhibitory effect during the subsequent transition to scientific concepts proper, fixing the child’s attention on the external signs of objects.
As primary education programs become saturated with modern scientific knowledge, the importance of such formal logical exercises decreases. Although to this day there are still teachers and psychologists who believe that exercises in mental operations on their own are possible, regardless of the content material.
The development of a developmental training system is based on the solution of a more general problem of training and development. Although the very formulation of the question of developmental training already presupposes that training has a developmental significance, the specific content of the relationship between training and development requires its disclosure.
Currently, there are two main ones in a certain
sense, opposite points of view on the relationship between training and development. According to one of them, presented mainly in the works of J. Piaget, development and mental development do not depend on learning. Education is considered as an external intervention in the development process, which can influence only some features of this process, somewhat delaying or accelerating the appearance and time course of individual regularly changing stages of intellectual development, but without changing either their sequence or their psychological content. With this point of view, mental development occurs within the child’s system of relationships with the things around him as physical objects.
Even if we assume that there is such a direct collision of a child with things, which occurs without any participation of adults, then in this case there is a peculiar process of acquiring individual experience, which has the character of spontaneous, unorganized self-learning. In reality, such an assumption is an abstraction. The fact is that the things surrounding the child do not have their social purpose written on them, and the method of their use cannot be discovered by the child without the participation of adults. The bearers of social ways of using and consuming things are adults, and only they can pass them on to a child.
It is difficult to imagine that a child, on his own, without any interference from adults, would go through the path of all the inventions of mankind in the period of time provided to him by childhood. A period that, compared to the history of mankind, is determined by an instant. There is nothing more false than the understanding of a child as a little Robinson, left to his own devices in the uninhabited world of things. The moral of the wonderful novel about Robinson Crusoe is precisely that a person’s intellectual power consists of those acquisitions that he brought with him to the desert island and which he received before he found himself in an exceptional situation; The pathos of the novel is in demonstrating the social essence of man even in an atmosphere of almost complete loneliness.
According to the second point of view, mental development occurs within the relationship between the child and society, in the process of assimilation of the generalized experience of humanity, fixed in a variety of forms: in the objects themselves and the ways of their use, in the system of scientific concepts with methods of action fixed in them, in the moral rules of relationships between people, etc. Education is a specially organized way of transmitting the social experience of humanity to an individual. While individual in its form, it is always social in content. Only this point of view can serve as the basis for developing a system of developmental education.
Recognition of the leading role of training for mental development in general, for mental development in particular, does not at all mean recognition that all training determines development. The very formulation of the question about developmental training, about the relationship between training and development, suggests that training can be different. Learning can determine development and can be completely neutral in relation to it.
Thus, learning to type on a typewriter, no matter how modern it is done, does not introduce anything fundamentally new into mental development. Of course, a person acquires a number of new skills, he develops flexibility of fingers and speed of orientation in the keyboard, but the acquisition of this skill does not have any effect on mental development.
What aspect of learning is decisive for mental development in primary school age? To answer this question, first of all, it is necessary to find out what is most important in the mental development of a junior schoolchild, that is, which aspect of his mental development needs to be improved so that it all rises to a new, higher level.
Mental development includes a number of mental processes. This is the development of observation and perception, memory, thinking and, finally, imagination. As follows from special psychological studies, each of these processes is connected with the others. However, the connection is not constant throughout childhood: in each period, one of the processes is of leading importance for the development of the others. Thus, in early childhood, the development of perception becomes of primary importance, and in preschool age, memory. It is well known with what ease preschoolers memorize various poems and fairy tales.
By the beginning of primary school age, both perception and memory have already gone through quite a long path of development. Now, for their further improvement, it is necessary that thinking rise to a new, higher level. By this time, thinking had already passed the path from practically effective, in which solving a problem is possible only in a situation of direct actions with objects, to visual-figurative, when the task does not require real action with objects, but tracing a possible solution path in a directly given visual field or in terms of visual representations preserved in memory.
The further development of thinking consists in the transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical reasoning thinking. The next step in the development of thinking, which occurs already in adolescence and consists in the emergence of hypothetical-reasoning thinking (i.e. thinking that is built on the basis of hypothetical assumptions and circumstances), can
occur only on the basis of relatively developed verbal and logical thinking.
The transition to verbal-logical thinking is impossible without a radical change in the content of thinking. Instead of concrete ideas that have a visual basis, concepts must be formed whose content is no longer the external, concrete, visual signs of objects and their relationships, but the internal, most essential properties of objects and phenomena and the relationships between them. It must be borne in mind that the forms of thinking are always in organic connection with the content.
Numerous experimental studies indicate that along with the formation of new, higher forms of thinking, significant shifts occur in the development of all other mental processes, especially in perception and memory. New forms of thinking become means of carrying out these processes, and the re-equipment of memory and perception raises their productivity to greater heights.
Thus, memory, which in preschool age was based on emotional empathy for the hero of a fairy tale or on visual images that evoke a “positive attitude”, turns into semantic memory, which is based on the establishment of connections within the memorized material, semantic and logical connections. Perception from the analyzer, based on obvious signs , turns into establishing connections, synthesizing. The main thing that happens with the mental processes of memory and perception is their arming with new means and methods, which are formed primarily within problems solved by verbal-logical thinking. This leads to the fact that both memory and perception becomes much more manageable, for the first time it becomes possible to choose means for solving specific problems of memory and thinking.Means can now be selected depending on the specific content of the problems.
For memorizing poems, it is essential to comprehend each word used by the poet, and for memorizing the multiplication table, establishing functional relationships between the work and the factors when one of them is increased by one.
Thanks to the transition of thinking to a new, higher level, a restructuring of all other mental processes occurs, memory becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking. The transition of thinking processes to a new stage and the associated restructuring of all other processes constitute the main content of mental development in primary school age.
Now we can return to the question of why training may not be developmental. This can happen when it is focused on already developed forms of mental activity of the child - perception, memory and forms of visual
figurative thinking characteristic of the previous period of development. Training structured in this way reinforces the already completed stages of mental development. It trails behind development and therefore does not move it forward.
An analysis of the content of our elementary school programs shows that they have not completely eliminated the goal of children acquiring empirical concepts and basic knowledge about the environment, practical skills in reading, counting and writing, which were characteristic of elementary school when it was a relatively closed cycle, and was not the initial link in the system of universal complete secondary education.
Let us return to the question of which aspect of learning is decisive for mental development in primary school age. Where lies the key, using which you can significantly strengthen the developmental function of education, solve the problem of the correct relationship between learning and development in the lower grades of school?
Such a key is the assimilation of a system of scientific concepts already at primary school age. The development of abstract verbal-logical thinking is impossible without a radical change in the content with which thought operates. The content in which new forms of thought are necessarily present and which necessarily requires them are scientific concepts and their system.
From the totality of social experience accumulated by mankind, school education should convey to children not just empirical knowledge about the properties and methods of acting with objects, but the experience of mankind’s knowledge of the phenomena of reality, generalized in science and recorded in the system of scientific concepts: nature, society, thinking.
It must be especially emphasized that the generalized experience of cognition includes not only ready-made concepts and their system, a method of their logical ordering, but - and this is especially important - the methods of action behind each concept through which this concept can be formed. In a certain way, didactically processed generalized methods of analyzing reality characteristic of modern science, leading to the formation of concepts, should be included in the content of training, constituting its core.
The content of learning should be seen as a system of concepts about a given area of reality to be mastered, together with the methods of action through which concepts and their system are formed in students. Concept - knowledge about the essential relationships between individual aspects of an object or phenomenon. Consequently, in order to form a concept, it is necessary first of all to highlight these aspects, and since they are not given in direct perception, it is necessary to carry out completely definite, unambiguous, concrete actions with objects in order to
properties appeared. Only by highlighting the properties can one determine in what relationships they are located, but to do this they must be placed in different relationships, i.e., be able to change relationships. Thus, the process of concept formation is inseparable from the formation of actions with objects that reveal their essential properties.
Let us emphasize once again: the most important feature of mastering concepts is that they cannot be memorized, you cannot simply tie knowledge to the subject. The concept must be formed, and it must be formed by the student under the guidance of the teacher.
When we gave the child the word “triangle” and told him that it is a figure consisting of three sides, we told him only the word for naming the object and its most general characteristics. The formation of the concept of “triangle” begins only when the child learns to relate its individual properties - its sides and angles (when the student establishes that in this figure the sum of two sides is always greater than the third, that the sum of the angles in it is always equal to two right angles, that The larger angle always lies opposite the larger side, etc.). A concept is a set of definitions, a set of many essential relations in an object. But not one of these relationships is given in direct observation; each of them must be discovered, and it can only be discovered through actions with the object.
Actions with objects, through which their essential properties are revealed and essential relationships between them are established, are the ways in which our thinking works. Already in initial education, it is especially important to establish the relationships between individual aspects of objects or phenomena of reality. There are endless possibilities for this - both in teaching mathematics and in teaching language.
If we teach children the number series, then it is necessary to achieve understanding and establish the relationships between the numbers included in it, and perhaps derive a general formula for its construction. If we introduce a child to the decimal number system, then it is necessary to identify the essential relationship on the basis of which it is built and show that it is not the only possible one. When we introduce children to arithmetic operations, it is especially important to establish significant relationships between the elements included in their structure. If we teach a child to read and write, then the most important thing is to establish the relationship between the phonemic structure of the language and its graphic designations. When we introduce children to the morphological structure of a word, we need to find out the system of relationships between the main and additional meanings in the word. The number of such examples could be multiplied ad infinitum.
It is essential, however, not just the formation of individual concepts, but the creation of their system. True, science itself helps with this, which is necessarily a system of concepts, where each concept is connected with others. Logical reasoning, - with one
on the one hand, reasoning about the relationship between individual aspects in a subject, and on the other hand, reasoning about the connections between concepts. Movement in the logic of these connections is the logic of thinking. Thus, we have found the key to the problem of developmental education in primary school age. This key is the content of the training. If we want education in the primary grades of school to become developmental, then we must take care, first of all, that the content is scientific, that is, that children learn the system of scientific concepts and how to obtain them. The development of children's thinking during this period is the key to their overall mental development.
We also touched upon the features of learning in primary school age (see 5.3), noting that this is the time when the child learns to learn, that is, masters educational activities. Therefore, if we try to formulate in one phrase what primary school age gives to learning, we can say that it forms the subject’s attitude towards learning, helps to transform reactive learning into spontaneous learning, and to become the subject of one’s own learning.
At primary school age, a child acquires a number of important abilities.
1. Thanks to the primary school period of development, a person receives a new means of learning. The main acquisition of primary school age is the formation of voluntary attention, i.e. the subject’s ability to consciously focus on something, which is commonly called figure, and abstract from the rest, which is usually called background.
Of course, the ability to distinguish a figure and a background appears in a person much earlier than at primary school age. Even a preschool-age child, seeing an interesting and new object, will strive for it in every possible way; he will not be distracted by promises, other objects, or threats of punishment. They will be the background for him, while the object he likes will become a figure.
The peculiarity of voluntary attention at primary school age is that the child masters the ability to voluntarily change the figure and background. For example, he can consciously distract himself from an object he likes and make his figure some other object, communication with someone close to him, or organization of activities. He can either arbitrarily change the figure and the background, or consider the figure in a different context, i.e., against a different background.
It is this feature of voluntary attention that often allows a person to comprehend the essence of a particular concept, to find a solution to a problem situation, considering it in a context that will be more interesting, understandable and related to his personal goals and objectives.
This ability is realized (and can be quite easily defined) in the ability to classify objects, situations, concepts on a variety of grounds.
It is appropriate to recall the game “Third Man,” which teachers and psychologists often use as a diagnostic technique. The subject is offered pictures with objects or situations drawn on them, or real objects, or descriptions of objects and situations. The task of the player (or the one who is being diagnosed) is to find an extra object or situation in the row. For example, a small child is given a cup, spoon, plate and doll. If the diagnosis is aimed at the level of development of the baby’s intelligence, then, as a rule, the norm is that the child will remove the doll and say that all other items are needed for food. But if you slightly change the direction of this technique and its interpretation, then a child with a high level of creativity will remove, for example, a cup from these pictures and say that the remaining pictures represent a situation in which the doll has soup, and then can remove the plate and explain this the fact that the doll drinks compote, etc.
If in preschool children the ability to solve a classification problem on various grounds indicates the level of development of their imagination and creativity, and often the level of adaptability, then in the arsenal of a primary school student it is one of the main results of his development and is directly related to learning. One might even say that this is precisely what allows us to talk about a qualitatively different type of learning.
Considering the stages of learning (see 5.1), we determined that first the subject is immersed in new material, then masters it and finally begins to use (implement) it in his own activities. At the stage of mastering the material, the child discovers (with the help of an adult) something new (method, material, concept), and then he must somehow remember it in order to use it in the future.
Until primary school age, a child, as a rule, memorizes mechanically. And the ability to classify material on different grounds allows you to remember it in a completely different way. If you analyze new material from different points of view, in different contexts, then the child will not only remember it, but will also be able to use it in various areas.
This ability is necessary when obtaining higher education. It is well known that the concepts of “good student” and “good specialist” do not always coincide. If a person passes exams and tests perfectly due to the fact that he crams and learns the material by heart, then usually by the next session he almost completely forgets it, and what remains in memory is not only not used in everyday life, but is even difficult to reproduce in response to a direct question.
If the new material is reviewed and analyzed by the student, based on his experience, and discussed with friends and classmates, then he will not only get a good mark on the exam, but will also include it in his personal context.
So, the special task of a university teacher is to organize conditions during the learning process so that the material that the student must master can be classified on different grounds and given a personal character.
2. The educational activities of a primary school student perform a service function. This means that its result is not associated with obtaining something new in the form of a method, concept, knowledge, skills, abilities, but with the use of new things in one’s life. And this is what radically changes the student’s attitude towards the learning process itself.
Let's look at an example. If a child does not have any special objective or subjective problems, he will, within a fairly short time, master the mechanism of reading, but precisely the mechanism. This means that he can read, but he does not become a reader. It takes quite a long time before a person who has learned to read begins to use this skill. Practice shows that there are people who never become readers.
There are quite a few ways to radically change the process of learning to read and get qualitatively different results by turning learning into a tool from the very beginning. In one case it may be a means of communication. For example, a mother taught her child to read by playing hide and seek with him. She hid a small toy from him and wrote a short note: “It’s on the table.” The child quickly found the toy and correlated what was indicated in the note with the place where he found the toy. Gradually the texts became longer: “She is on a small table” or “She is on a small table in the kitchen”, etc.
In another case, it may be a means of other activities of the child. For example, a child “reads” (but actually recites by heart) some text or poem and traces the lines with his finger. If finger driving was preceded by adult reading, then this is also a fairly quick and easy way to learn to read in the psychological sense of the word. In this case, not only the reading mechanism is mastered, but also the reading position is formed from the very beginning. The main thing is that no special effort is required to turn a child who has learned to read in this way into a reader. But all the adult did was organize teaching as an auxiliary, service activity.
Many university teachers are surprised and indignant that some students have to explain the same thing over and over again, but they do not use new knowledge at all or make little use of it, and that many university graduates cannot work effectively in their specialty.
There are often cases when a person comes to a psychologist with complaints that he cannot find a good, well-paid job, that his profession has turned out to be unfashionable and unprestigious, that he cannot realize himself. In a significant part of such situations, the reason turns out to be related to the fact that this person’s goal was to obtain a good diploma, enter graduate school, and pass exams. Thus, the goals pursued distorted the essence of the teaching activity itself.
Unfortunately, modern schools do not teach learning, so there are more and more students with learning problems. And if you do not pay attention to this and continue to take exams from them, positively assessing the answers to the questions communicated to the students in advance, then the work and efforts of the teacher in many ways become meaningless.
3. At primary school age, a person learns to control his activities, his actions and even his intentions. Unfortunately, teachers of not only primary, but also secondary and higher schools often forget about this. They forget and appropriate this ability to themselves: “You decide, do, plan, but we will control.” And they control it, but in a special way. And this process is not control.
In order to control, it is necessary to bring together what a person began to act for, plan and the result obtained: a solved task or problem, a prize received, a ready-made plan or a new intention. At the same time, you need to be able to do several very important things, especially for learning:
- want, need, have a need to act, behave in a certain way, plan;
- have the capabilities, conditions, necessary, in the opinion of the subject, means and materials in order to act, behave in a certain way, plan;
- have a meaningful result, understandable to the subject, obtained in the process of activity, behavior, planning.
These not at all tricky conditions impose very “tricky” demands on the teacher. He must focus his training primarily on his student, and not on the program, established standards, or innovative methods. However, in some cases, even if teachers focus on students, they do not necessarily know how to control themselves. The inability to control oneself has a very detrimental effect not only on educational results, but also in the everyday life of both the child and the adult. The sayings “you can’t learn from other people’s mistakes” and “stepping on the same rake several times” are connected precisely with this human ability.
An adult who does not know how to control himself often gives the impression of being not very smart, not of this world, he sometimes looks like Epikhodov’s closest relative (the hero of the work of A.P. Chekhov, with whom all sorts of troubles happened all the time). This is a person who has huge problems in any kind of learning. There is a category of students who, having studied two courses at one institute, are then transferred to another, to a third. They sincerely believe that they “can’t find themselves,” while the people around them see the reason for such wanderings in the underdevelopment of their intellectual abilities. In fact, they simply cannot compare what they did, are doing or are going to do with the result obtained or intended (for more on this, see 5.3). The consequence of this is “broken”, fragmented, situational perception and thinking, poor understanding of cause-and-effect relationships, difficulties in finding and correcting one’s own (sometimes not only one’s own) mistakes and many other things that a child must fully master in the primary school period. development.
The most common way to correct this deficiency of a person, regardless of his passport age, will be tasks aimed at correcting the mistakes of other people. If you encounter difficulties in completing tasks, you should first observe and participate in similar activities of another person.
Another type of correctional work can be tasks in which a person deliberately must make as many mistakes as possible. At the same time, it is assumed that if he intentionally makes mistakes in the process of any activity, then he must know how to correctly perform this or that task, reflect and control the way it is performed.
4. At primary school age, the child learns to evaluate himself and the activities performed. As a rule, assessment, like control, is in most cases the prerogative of teachers or those who replace them. There has even been a certain tradition in pedagogy, which is preserved despite various educational reforms leading to qualitative changes in teaching. According to it, assessment is, on the one hand, a “carrot and stick”, and on the other hand, a certain motive for learning. It is assumed that “A’s” and “B’s” or high scores received for academic success provide a “sweet” life for the student and at the same time encourage him to further successful studies.
However, the assessment is quite complicated. Firstly, the assessment of an adult, a teacher, given from the outside, has a certain motivating value and is effective only if it is correlated by the subject with his self-esteem. Accordingly, the use of assessment in various types of activities, including training, presupposes confidence that the subject has a certain self-esteem related to the result of the assessment. Before the crisis of seven years, a psychologically healthy child perceives the teacher’s assessment not as an assessment of his drawing or behavior, but as an indicator of his attitude towards himself, because his self-esteem is of a general nature and does not imply division. That is why it tends to be overpriced. It must be borne in mind that assessment is closely related to control. Although they have not been separated, many teachers see only an external connection between assessment and control: whoever has controlled gives an assessment, or assessment is some result of control. However, the deeper, internal aspect of the connection between assessment and control concerns precisely the opposite meaning. Assessment (understood as self-esteem or as the ratio of external and internal assessment of oneself or one’s activities) in learning has an incentive function, primarily in relation to control.
Let's try to simulate a normal situation. A person (this can be a junior or senior schoolchild, a student, or even a teacher or specialist) performs some kind of activity of a theoretical or practical nature and receives one or another result. If he is satisfied with this result and received it without much effort, then, as a rule, he does not check or control the process of implementing the activity. If he is not satisfied with the result obtained (that is, he evaluates himself and the activity performed not with the highest rating), then he begins to understand and gradually control what he did, what he received, to correlate the expected result, the original intention with the resulting product.
One of the most important tasks facing higher education teachers is the development of various aspects of students’ self-esteem, and, if necessary, the correction of the student’s attitude towards himself and his own activities.
A consequence of modern school education is that often the self-esteem of applicants entering a university turns out to be inadequate, merged with a general personal assessment of themselves; a significant part of boys and girls sincerely believe that professors should be involved in their assessment. That is why, especially in the first years, it is very important to pay special attention in classes to issues of student self-esteem. To this end, it is important to ask students to evaluate each other, to highlight different parameters and aspects of assessment, to try both in their professional activities and in individual communication with students to draw their attention to the fact that the same result can be considered from different angles, that The assessment is largely conditional in nature and does not represent the final outcome of training.