Planning parameters of the building. Space-planning solutions for industrial buildings
Despite the diversity of production and, accordingly, space-planning and design solutions for buildings, some general principles of these solutions can be identified. Among them, first of all, it is worth highlighting the blocking in one industrial building of some production premises serving one technological process, or some workshops with different technological processes, or even different industrial enterprises.
Design experience shows that with the help of blocking it is possible in some cases to reduce the area of the factory site by 30%, reduce the perimeter of external walls by up to 50%, and reduce construction costs by 15-20%.
At the same time, blocking, taking into account the different characteristics of technological processes, can create certain difficulties in the space-planning and design solutions of buildings, bearing in mind possible different requirements for the size of the space, the meteorological regime, the air environment, etc.
Blocking in areas with relatively unsettled terrain can lead to an unjustified increase in the volume of earthworks and a decrease in the economic effect. Therefore, blocking is advisable in cases where the characteristics of technological processes (for example, in terms of loads, environmental requirements, etc.) are relatively close to each other and when local construction conditions do not cause serious difficulties (for example, in terms of relief, size of the territory, etc.).
Another positive factor of blocking should be noted - the possibility of combining homogeneous auxiliary workshops (for example, mechanical repair, warehouse, etc.) of different production processes. Such a combination makes it possible not only to reduce the required volumes of the building as a result of reducing auxiliary areas, but also to reduce the number of personnel.
Fig.1. Blocking in one building two enterprises with different production technologies - a textile factory and an electrical products plant.
Along with blocking, pavilion construction also retains its importance when it is justified by the nature of the technological process (for example, accompanied by significant heat and gas emissions), local conditions and, most importantly, demonstrable economic advantages.
Based on economic considerations, in the instrument-making industry, for example, the so-called “modular principle” of forming the structure of an enterprise has been used, according to which the enterprise consists of several autonomous homogeneous units - “technological modules” located in separate small production buildings (module buildings) .
The economic effect is achieved by first putting into operation the first module body and obtaining the finished product, and then sequentially commissioning other buildings. Thus, by the end of the construction of the last module building, i.e. by the time the construction of the enterprise as a whole is completed, it produces finished products in an ever-increasing volume. It should be noted that with the “modular principle” the advantages of blocking are lost.
In deciding whether to block or use pavilion development, economics plays a significant role, along with the technological factors listed above.
The choice of number of storeys is one of the important tasks solved during the design process.
If the characteristics of the technological process allow for the same degree of feasibility of using both single-story and multi-story buildings, the choice of the number of storeys of the building depends on local conditions (the area of the site allocated for construction, its topography, climatic characteristics of the area, etc.), as well as on technical and economic indicators.
It should be borne in mind that one-story buildings allow for more free placement and movement of equipment when modernizing the technological process. They provide a relatively simple solution to the arrangement of lifting and transport equipment and natural lighting throughout the entire production area of the workshop. At the same time, one-story industrial buildings require significant territories, which are often difficult to allocate according to the conditions of city development, and on the other hand, urban territories are of great value due to the presence of improvement elements (roads, underground communications, etc.) and the prospects for further city development. The construction of one-story industrial buildings in suburban areas often entails a reduction in valuable agricultural land.
It should be borne in mind that in multi-storey buildings the total area is always 15-20% higher than in single-storey buildings, due to the installation of stairs, lifts, and a large number of other communication rooms. Therefore, when choosing the number of floors, the main criterion is considered to be economic indicators obtained from a comparison of options for possible solutions, if any of the technological requirements do not clearly determine the number of floors.
Finally, we should highlight the principle of unification of building solutions, which aims to obtain a relatively better space-planning and design solution, helps to increase the flexibility or versatility of space-planning and design solutions of industrial buildings, which is of great importance for accelerating scientific and technological progress.
Increasing the versatility or flexibility of industrial buildings is achieved primarily as a result of freeing up space, for example by increasing the grid of columns and, where necessary, by increasing the height of the room (clean). Increased versatility is also achieved by certain constructive measures, for example, by installing a reinforced floor in one-story industrial buildings over its entire area, allowing equipment to be installed anywhere in the room without constructing special foundations.
While pursuing increased versatility, we must not forget about the economic side of the matter. For example, increasing the column grid may increase the cost of pavement structures due to increased span or spacing of vertical supports. Therefore, when making a decision that takes into account the conditions for increasing the versatility of a building, it is necessary to check its economic efficiency.
As indicated, an appropriate solution for an industrial building is determined primarily by the economical use of space, i.e., its areas and volumes for the technological process for which it is intended. The approximately required production space is determined by the capacity of the enterprise on the basis of aggregated industry indicators for the output of finished products in tons or rubles per m2 of area. Industry indicators are derived based on the indicators of operating homogeneous enterprises that are advanced in technical and production relations.
When designing a building, great attention is paid not only to the rational arrangement of technological equipment, convenient transportation of raw materials, semi-finished products, finished products and production waste, but also to the correct organization of workplaces, ensuring safety and creating working conditions that meet sanitary and hygienic requirements.
The space-planning solution should be as simple as possible in its form. The building is rectangular in plan with parallel spans of the same width and height, simplifies the design solution, increases the degree of prefabrication of structures, and reduces the number of their standard sizes.
An important general principle of space-planning decisions is the isolation of harmful hazards of some production premises from others. Meteorological conditions, air composition, noise, and vibration can have a visible influence. For example, production facilities, the technological process of which is accompanied by significant heat or gas emissions, are located in one-story buildings, and the width and profile of such buildings are determined taking into account the provision of effective aeration. Obviously, in this case, pavilion construction may be preferable, providing reliable insulation of rooms with normal conditions. Production facilities in which toxic gases, vapors and dust may be released into the air in concentrations exceeding maximum permissible standards are located in separate rooms isolated from other rooms of buildings by appropriate enclosing structures.
The space-planning and design solutions of industrial buildings are significantly influenced by the natural and climatic characteristics of the construction site in terms of temperature and wind conditions, the amount of precipitation and other indicators. In harsh climatic conditions, for example, buildings with a smaller area of external enclosing structures (blocked, multi-story) are preferable in order to reduce heat loss, etc. consequently, increasing the operating efficiency of the building. The frequency, speed and direction of winds, as well as patterns of snow transfer, influence the choice of coating profile if aeration and natural lighting through skylights are provided. The characteristics of the light climate generally determine the solution of natural lighting, the size of the light openings and the size of the lanterns. From the above, it should be concluded that climatic characteristics are carefully identified and taken into account when making design decisions.
Fire safety requirements have a significant impact on space-planning and design solutions. In accordance with them, the maximum permissible number of storeys of buildings, the required number of storeys of buildings, the required degree of fire resistance of their structures and the largest permissible floor area between fire barriers are determined.
If the technological process allows, premises with industries that are most dangerous in terms of fire are located in one-story buildings near the outer walls, and in multi-story buildings - on the upper floors. In the event of a fire, provision is made for the safe evacuation of people from the building, for which evacuation routes and exits are designed.
Evacuation exits for people are not provided through premises with production facilities of categories A, B and E, as well as through premises in buildings of IV and V fire resistance degrees.
Production categories A and B are explosion- and fire-hazardous industries. Category A production is characterized by the use, storage or formation in the production process of flammable gases, the lower explosive limit of which is 10% or less of the volume of air; liquids with a vapor flash point up to 28° C inclusive, provided that these gases and liquids can form explosive mixtures in a volume exceeding 5% of the volume of the room; substances capable of exploding and burning when interacting with water, air oxygen and each other.
Category B production facilities are characterized by the presence of flammable gases, the lower explosive limit of which is more than 10% of the volume of air; liquids with a vapor flash point above 28 to 61 ° C inclusive; liquids heated under production conditions to a flash point or higher; flammable dusts or fibers, the lower explosive limit of which is 65 g/m3 or less relative to the volume of air, provided that these gases, liquids and dusts can form explosive mixtures in a volume exceeding 5% of the volume of the room.
Category B productions are characterized by the presence of liquid with a vapor flash point above 61° C; combustible dust or fibers, the lower explosive limit of which is more than 65 g/m3 to the volume of air; substances that can only burn when interacting with water, air oxygen or with each other; solid combustible substances and materials.
Driveways, passages, stairs, doors and gates intended for production purposes are used as emergency exits, with the exception of gates intended for the passage of railway transport.
The number of emergency exits from each room must be at least two. External fire escapes that meet fire safety requirements can be used as exits from the second and higher floors. Depending on the category of fire hazard of production and the degree of fire resistance of the building, the distance from the most remote workplace to the exit to the outside or to the staircase is taken so that people can leave the premises for as long as staying in it is permissible, i.e., until until the fire and combustion products spread.
The width of communication rooms and doors on evacuation routes is taken depending on the number of people on the most populated floor (except for the first), so that their capacity fully ensures evacuation at a given time. In most cases, the designs of single-story and multi-story industrial buildings performed according to the frame scheme. Frame systems are most efficient under significant static and dynamic loads, typical of industrial buildings, and significant sizes of spans to be covered.
However, for small spans (up to 12 m) and the absence of heavy lifting and transport equipment, instead of frame structures, a structure with load-bearing walls is used. The main structural elements of such buildings are walls, load-bearing covering structures (beams or trusses) and covering slabs laid on them. Since industrial buildings usually do not have internal transverse walls, the stability of the external walls is achieved by installing pilasters, which are placed on the inner or outer side of the wall, most often in places where the load-bearing structures of the covering are supported.
The load-bearing skeleton of a one-story frame industrial building is the transverse frames and the longitudinal elements connecting them.
Fig.2. The main elements of the frame of a one-story industrial building. a - general view; b - diagram of the arrangement of rafter structures; c - diagram of the arrangement of vertical connections in the coating: 1 - foundation for the column, 2 - frame column, 3 - crossbar (beam or truss), 4 - crane beam, 5 - foundation beam; 6 - supporting structure of the enclosing part of the slab covering; 7 - rafter truss; 8 - vertical connections between columns, 9 - vertical connections in the covering; 10 - outer wall, 11 - window sashes; 12 - - enclosing structure of the coating (vapor barrier, thermal insulation and roofing). 13 - funnel of internal drainage.
The transverse frame of the frame consists of racks that are rigidly embedded in the foundation, and crossbars (trusses or beams), which are the load-bearing structures of the covering, supported by the racks of the frame.
The longitudinal elements of the frame ensure the stability of the frame in the longitudinal direction and, in addition to the loads of its own weight, absorb longitudinal loads from the braking of cranes and loads from the wind acting on the end walls of the building. These elements include: foundation, strapping and crane beams, load-bearing structures of the enclosing part of the covering and special connections (between the racks and between the load-bearing structures of the covering).
The external walls of frame buildings are only enclosing structures and therefore are designed as self-supporting or curtain walls. The structural coating system can be without purlins or with purlins. In the first case, large-sized slabs (panels) are laid over the load-bearing structures of the coating. In the second case, purlins are laid along the building, and slabs of short length are laid along them in the transverse direction. The non-run coating scheme is more economical in terms of material costs.
When the pitch of the frame columns is 12 m or more, it becomes necessary to install sub-rafter structures, on which crossbars (beams) or trusses are installed after 6 or 12 m. In the case where there is no overhead transport and the load-bearing structure of the enclosing part of the covering is reinforced concrete slabs 12 m long, there is no need for sub-rafter structures when the pitch of the frame columns is equal to the span of the slabs.
In some industrial buildings, for example, workshops of metallurgical plants, sub-rafter structures have significant spans; in open-hearth shops, where furnaces are located in the middle part of the building, the frame columns of the middle row are spaced at intervals of 36 m.
Fig.3. Construction of rafter structures for large spans. a, b - in the main building of the open-hearth shop with furnaces with a capacity of 500 tons (a - cross section; b - longitudinal section); c - in the rolling shop, P - casting bay. P furnace bay; 1 - filling crane with a lifting capacity of 350/75/15 tons; 2 - filling edge with a lifting capacity of 180/50t; 3 - cantilever-rotary mobile crane with a lifting capacity of 300 m; 4 - cantilever mobile crane with a lifting capacity of 3 tons, 5 - charge opener; 6 - protective screen, 7 - crane beams. 8 - trusses; 9 - sub-trusses, 10 - sections of columns
Sub-rafter structures are made in the form of trusses that take either the load from the covering or the load from overhead cranes (Fig. 7, a).
The sub-rafter trusses spanning a span of 72 m are made like steel bridge trusses with riveted joints (Fig. 7.c). In this case, in addition to the load of the crane beams, they perceive the loads from sections of columns that are riveted into the rafter trusses.
Coverings with load-bearing structures in the form of reinforced concrete beams or trusses with slabs laid on them have a reduced concrete thickness of 80–100 mm with a dead mass (weight) of 1 m2 of covering of 200–250 kg. With such a mass of the coating, a significant part of the concrete and reinforcing steel is spent on supporting the structure’s own mass. Therefore, along with these coating structures, lightweight structures using metal profiled flooring with light insulation, laid along purlins, are now widespread.
Very promising are coatings in the form of thin-walled spatial structures: shells, arches, folds, etc., examples of which are discussed below. There are known solutions for spatial reinforced cement coatings, the mass of 1 m of which is 45-55 kg, and the reduced thickness of the shell is 15-20 mm.
Multi-storey industrial buildings are designed, as a rule, with a complete prefabricated reinforced concrete frame and self-supporting or curtain walls and, in some cases, with an incomplete frame and load-bearing walls. The main elements of the frame are columns, crossbars, floor slabs and connections. Interfloor ceilings are made from prefabricated reinforced concrete structures of two types: beam and beamless.
With beamless floors, the function of crossbars is performed by reinforced concrete slabs located along the alignment axes of the columns. Columns and crossbars, rigidly connected to each other at the nodes, form frame frames, which can be positioned across, along, or simultaneously in both directions.
Interfloor reinforced concrete floors serve as rigid horizontal connections: they distribute the horizontal (wind) load between frame elements and ensure joint spatial operation of all building frame elements.
The function of vertical connections is performed by transverse or longitudinal reinforced concrete walls, or cruciform steel elements installed between columns, or a rigid core formed by a combination of transverse and longitudinal reinforced concrete walls forming staircases and elevators.
Prefabricated reinforced concrete frames can be constructed using a frame, frame-braced or braced system. With a frame frame system, the spatial rigidity of the building is ensured by the work of the frame itself, the frames of which absorb both horizontal and vertical loads. With a frame-braced system, vertical loads are perceived by the frame frames, and horizontal loads are carried by frames and vertical braces (diaphragms). With a braced system, vertical loads are carried by frame columns, and horizontal loads are carried by vertical braces.
Frame-braced systems have some advantages over frames, since the nodal connections of frame elements are simplified and they can be unified, achieving some reduction in steel consumption due to lightweight embedded parts at joints and a reduction in reinforcement in columns.
In cases where there are no transverse walls or staircases or the distance between them is very large, and also when the floors are weakened by holes, it is not possible to ensure satisfactory operation of the precast reinforced concrete frame of the frame-braced system. In such cases, a prefabricated frame system is used. In some cases, the frame can be designed with a beam structure and a rigid reinforced concrete monolithic core. The core for the entire height of the building is made in movable formwork.
Fire safety requirements in the design solutions of industrial buildings are reflected primarily in the construction of fire barriers, i.e. fire walls (firewalls, Fig. 8, a, b), fire zones (Fig. 8 f), and in multi-storey buildings - in installation of fireproof floors.
Fig.4. Fire barriers. a - transverse fire wall, b - longitudinal fire wall, c - fire zone, d - location of fire barriers in plan.
Fire barriers divide the volume of the building into separate parts, limiting the spread of fire within one part of the building in the event of a fire. In addition, with the help of fire barriers, the most flammable rooms are identified.
Fire barriers are made of fireproof structures. Fire walls are placed across or along the building, separating interfloor ceilings, coverings, lanterns and other structural elements made of fireproof or non-combustible materials. Fire walls are installed on independent foundations or on load-bearing fireproof floor structures.
Fire walls are made above the roof level by 0.6 m if at least one of the covering elements, with the exception of the roof, is made of combustible materials, and by 0.3 m if all the covering elements, with the exception of the roof, are made of fire-resistant and non-combustible materials .
Fire walls of buildings with fireproof coatings may not separate the coatings and not rise above the roof, regardless of its flammability group.
In workshops equipped with overhead cranes, fire walls are located only in the upper part of the building. The distances between fire protection steps are determined depending on the fire hazard category of the production. degree of fire resistance, number of storeys of the building and are given in building codes and regulations. The construction of openings in fire walls is not recommended.
Fire zones are installed with a width of at least 6 m. They cut the building along its entire width. In areas of fire protection zones, all structural elements of the building are made of fireproof materials. If the fire zone is located along the building, then it is a fire span, all structures of which are also made of fireproof materials (Fig. 8, d). Along the edges of the fire zone, ridges are made of fireproof materials, the size of which is similar to the projections of fire walls.
1. Requirements for buildings.
2. Space-planning parameters of buildings.
3. Separate elements of buildings.
4. Vertical and horizontal communications.
Requirements for buildings.
There are mandatory conditions that the building must meet. Such conditions are called requirements.
Requirements are expressed in the form of generally accepted norms. The standards are recorded in printed form. For example, SNiPs, GOSTs.
These requirements and standards change due to economic development and technological progress.
Any building is created based on several types of requirements:
. functional- depend on the purpose of the building and ensure its operation in accordance with this purpose;
. technical— this is to ensure the protection of premises from the influence of the external environment, strength, stability, fire resistance, durability;
. fire protection- this is a choice of structural elements of buildings that are able to maintain their load-bearing and enclosing capabilities in the event of a fire;
. aesthetic- this is the creation of the artistic appearance of the building and the space surrounding it through the choice of building materials, structural form, and color scheme;
. economic- this is ensuring minimal costs for the design, construction, operation of the building - this is the financial part, labor costs, design and construction time frames.
Functional requirements include:
Composition of premises for residential, public and auxiliary buildings,
Norms of their areas and volumes,
Quality of external and internal finishing,
The composition of the necessary technical and engineering equipment (ventilation, plumbing and electrical devices, etc.) to ensure sanitary and hygienic conditions in the premises;
For industrial buildings, the dimensions of the spans of the premises, technical equipment, installation of special equipment, etc. are determined.
Functional requirements determine the interconnection of the premises with each other, which should ensure ease of use of the building.
For example:
A residential building should have ventilated, bright rooms, their areas and sizes correspond to the number and composition of the family for which they are intended, comfortable kitchens and sanitary facilities (bathrooms, latrines);
Family composition and apartment area
The school building should have a large number of spacious, bright classrooms, recreation areas, laboratories, there should be sports and assembly halls, service rooms corresponding to the number of students for which the building is designed;
The store or shopping center should have convenient trading floors, warehouse and sales premises, etc.
All standard values of requirements are indicated in the relevant SNiPs:
SNiP 31-01-2003 “Residential multi-apartment buildings”;
SNiP 31-02-2201 “Single-apartment residential houses”;
SNiP 2.08.01-89 “Public buildings”;
SNiP 31-01-2001 “Industrial buildings”;
SNiP 2.09.04-87 “Administrative and domestic buildings”.
Functional requirements depend on the class of the building.
Based on the functional requirements, the most acceptable space-planning solution- This:
Establishment of proportional dimensions of premises,
Their relative position,
Floors of the building,
Floor heights,
Paths for the movement of people to their place of stay and evacuation from premises,
Determining the external appearance of the building and the nature of its interiors.
In accordance with the purpose of the building and its premises are provided for each premises sanitary and hygienic conditions.
Sanitary and hygienic conditions are the creation of comfortable physical qualities of the environment for human stay and operation of the building:
Temperature and humidity in the room,
Natural and artificial lighting,
Sound insulation and sound absorption,
Insolation and other requirements.
These requirements depend on natural and climatic factors and can only be established in connection with them.
For example:
At low air temperatures, the thermal stability of enclosing structures is important;
If there is an increased noise level indoors or outdoors, appropriate building materials are selected for structures with sound insulation of ceilings and partitions;
With a small number of sunny days a year, an artificial lighting system is thought out.
Technical requirements ensure the reliability of the building, safety, and validity of technical solutions. They include requirements for strength, stability, fire resistance, and durability.
These requirements are the basis:
Selection of design schemes in accordance with the architectural design and function of the building;
Selection of building materials and products;
Protecting them in structures from physical, chemical, biological and other influences.
Contents of requirements to buildings depends on their purpose and significance, i.e. from building class. For each class, requirements are established for the durability and fire resistance of the main structural elements, which ensure the capitality of the building. The most stringent requirements for Class I buildings (large public buildings, government offices, residential buildings over 9 floors high, large power plants, etc.). Less strict - for class IV buildings (low-rise buildings, small industrial buildings).
In some cases, increased requirements for water tightness, vapor tightness, and moisture resistance are imposed on building structures. For example, in rooms where baths, laundries, and bathrooms are located.
For special-purpose premises, the requirement of impenetrability against various rays (X-rays, gamma rays, atomic radiation) must be met.
Fire requirements to buildings are described in SNiP II-A.5-70 “Fire safety standards for the design of buildings and structures.” It highlights two main concepts - fire hazard and fire resistance.
Fire hazard- This properties of materials, structures, buildings that contribute to the occurrence of fire factors and its development.
Fire resistance- This the ability to resist the effects of fire and its spread.
There is a distinction between functional and structural fire hazards.
Functional fire hazard depends on the purpose of the building, how the building is used and on the degree of safety of people in the building in the event of a fire (taking into account their age, physical condition, ability to sleep, number of people).
SNiP identifies 5 classes of buildings according to fire hazard:
F1- for permanent residence and temporary (including round-the-clock) stay of people: kindergartens, nurseries, homes for the elderly and disabled, hospitals, dormitories of child care institutions, sanatoriums, rest homes, hotels, dormitories, single-apartment and multi-apartment residential buildings;
F2- entertainment and cultural and educational institutions (which are characterized by a massive presence of visitors at certain periods): theaters, cinemas, concert halls, clubs, circuses, sports facilities, libraries, museums, exhibitions;
Federal Law- public service enterprises (with more visitors than service personnel): trade, catering, consumer services enterprises, train stations, clinics, laboratories, post offices;
F4- educational institutions, scientific and design organizations, management institutions (where premises are used for some time during the day);
F5- industrial, warehouse and agricultural buildings, structures and premises (where there are permanent workers, including around the clock).
Depending on, what class the building belongs to, building structures are selected. For example, the kindergarten building will not be built from wooden structures; reinforced concrete structures will be used.
Structural fire hazard of a building depends on the degree of participation of its structures in the development of a fire and the formation of its factors.
Building construction have fire hazard and fire resistance.
By fire danger building structures are divided into four classes:
KO - non-fire hazardous;
K1 - low fire hazard;
K2 - moderately fire hazardous;
KZ - fire hazardous.
Fire resistance building structure is determined ultimate fire resistance- this is the maximum time in hours at which the structure resists fire in a fire.
According to SNiP 2.01.02 - 85 “Fire safety standards”, 5 main ones are established degrees fire resistance of buildings.
With the I degree of fire resistance of a building, all its structures are made of fireproof materials:
Load-bearing walls must resist fire for 2.5 hours (higher structural liability);
External curtain walls and partitions can resist fire for only 0.5 hours.
With fire resistance degree II, it is allowed to make internal walls from materials that are difficult to burn:
Load-bearing walls must resist fire for 2 hours (higher responsibility for structures);
External curtain walls and partitions can resist fire for only 0.25 hours.
With the third degree of fire resistance, it is also possible to make ceilings from materials that are difficult to burn.
With IV degree of fire resistance, all structures are allowed to be made from materials that are difficult to burn or combustible but protected.
With the V degree of fire resistance, all structures are allowed to be made from combustible materials.
Those. The higher the fire resistance rating of a building, the less responsible it is.
Buildings of I, II and III degrees of fire resistance include stone buildings.
Fire resistance class IV - wooden plastered buildings.
To the V degree of fire resistance - wooden unplastered buildings.
Fire danger building materials depends on them:
- flammability- building materials are divided into flammable (G) and non-flammable (NG), flammable materials are low-flammable (G1), moderately flammable (G2), normally flammable (G3), highly flammable (G4);
- flammability- combustible building materials are divided into three groups:
Refractory (B1), moderately flammable (B2), highly flammable (B3);
- spread of flame over the surface- combustible building materials are: non-flammable (RP1), weakly spreading (RP2), moderately spreading (RP3), highly spreading (RP4);
- smoke-forming ability- flammable building materials with smoke-generating properties
Abilities are divided into three groups: with low smoke-forming ability (D1), with moderate smoke-forming ability (D2), with high smoke-forming ability (D3);
- toxicity- combustible building materials are divided into four groups: low-hazardous (T1), moderately hazardous (T2), highly hazardous (T3), extremely dangerous (T4).
Types of building materials that relate to these characteristics can be seen in GOSTs:
In terms of flammability - GOST 30244 - 94 “Building materials. Test methods for go-
ruggedness",
On flammability - GOST 30402 - 96 “Building materials. Flammability test methods",
On flame propagation - GOST 30444 - 97 (GOST R 51032-97) “Building materials. Test methods for flame propagation",
On smoke-forming ability and toxicity of combustion products - GOST 12.1.044 - 89 “Fire and explosion hazard of substances and materials”.
Construction materials and structures By flammability degree They are divided into fireproof, fire-resistant and combustible.
Fireproof materials under the influence of fire or high temperature they do not ignite, do not smolder or char.
Refractory materials under the influence of fire or high temperature, they ignite, smolder or char and continue to burn or smolder only in the presence of a fire source; after removing the source of fire, burning and smoldering stop.
Combustible materials when exposed to fire or high temperature, they ignite or smolder and continue to burn or smolder after the source of fire is removed.
Structures made of materials that are difficult to burn, as well as those that are combustible but protected from fire by plaster or cladding, are classified as non-combustible.
Fire resistance and fire safety requirements influence not only the choice of building materials, but also the planning decisions of buildings.
Buildings of considerable length, built from combustible or difficult-to-burn materials, must be divided into compartments fire barriers. The purpose of these barriers is to prevent the spread of fire and combustion products throughout the building. These include: fire walls (firewalls), zones, partitions, vestibules, airlocks, etc.
Types of fire barriers, their minimum fire resistance limits (from 0.75 to 2.5 hours), the distance between them are taken depending on the purpose and number of floors of the building, the degree of its fire resistance.
Aesthetic requirements- these are requirements regarding color, texture, hygiene of building structures, resistance to abrasion and heat absorption (floors), etc.
Economic requirements include:
Cost-effectiveness of architectural and technical solutions in general;
Cost-effectiveness during the construction of a building;
Operating costs, i.e. cost-effectiveness during operation;
Cost of wear and tear and replacement cost of the building (reconstruction).
Economical during the design and construction of buildings is achieved through the unification of elements.
Unification- This bringing building elements and structures to several types. For example, the use of one or two types of filling window openings, three types of doors. Those. standard designs are used.
Constructed buildings must fully meet their purpose and meet the following requirements:
1. functional feasibility, i.e. the building must be convenient for work, rest or other process for which it is intended;
2. technical feasibility, i.e. the building must reliably protect people from harmful atmospheric influences; be durable, i.e. withstand external influences and stable, i.e. do not lose their performance qualities over time;
3. architectural and artistic expressiveness, i.e. the building must be attractive in external (exterior) and internal (interior) appearance;
4. economic feasibility (involves a reduction in labor costs, materials and a reduction in construction time).
4 Space-planning parameters of the building
Volumetric planning parameters include: pitch, span, floor height.
Step (b)– the distance between the transverse coordination axes.
Span (l)- the distance between the longitudinal coordination axes.
Floor height (H this ) - vertical distance from the floor level below the floor located to the floor level above the floor located ( N this=2.8; 3.0; 3.3m)
5 Types of sizes of structural elements
Modular size coordination in construction (MCCS) is a single right for linking and coordinating the sizes of all parts and elements of a building. The MCRS is based on the principle of multiplicity of all sizes to the module M = 100mm.
When choosing dimensions for the length or width of prefabricated structures, enlarged modules are used (6000, 3000, 1500, 1200 mm) and, accordingly, we designate them as 60M, 30M, 15M, 12M.
When assigning cross-sectional dimensions of prefabricated structures, fractional modules are used (50, 20, 10, 5 mm) and, accordingly, we designate them as 1/2M, 1/5M, 1/10M, 1/20M.
The MCRS is based on 3 types of design dimensions:
1. Coordination– the size between the coordination axes of the structure, taking into account parts of the seams and gaps. This size is a multiple of the module.
2.Constructive- the size between the actual faces of the structure without taking into account parts of the seams and gaps.
3. Full-scale– the actual size obtained during the manufacturing process of the structure differs from the design size by the tolerance established by GOST.
6 The concept of unification, typification, standardization
In the mass production of prefabricated structures, their uniformity is important, which is achieved through unification, typification and standardization.
Unification– limiting the types of sizes of prefabricated structures and parts (the technology of factory production is simplified and installation work is accelerated).
Typing– selection from among the unified most economical designs and parts suitable for repeated use.
Standardization– the final stage of unification and typification, standard designs that have been tested in operation and have become widespread in construction are approved as samples.
Control questions
Question
Question
Control questions
Control questions
Question
Question
Question
Question
Control questions
Question
Question
Question
Question
Question
Question
Control questions
Question
Question
Control questions
Question
Question
Question
Question
Question
Control questions
Question
Question
FINE LAYING ON A NATURAL BASIS.
DESIGN OF BASES AND FOUNDATIONS
Educational and methodological manual
Editor L.A. Myagina
PD No. 6 - 0011 dated 06/13/2000.
Signed for publication on December 4, 2007.
Format 60x84 /1 16. Printing paper.
Offset printing.
Uch. – ed. l.3.5.
Circulation 100 copies. Order No. 105882.
Ryazan Institute (branch) MGOU
390000, Ryazan, st. Pravo-Lybidskaya, 26/53
1. Main types of industrial buildings and their design schemes 3
2. Issues of typification and unification of industrial buildings 6
3. Frame of one-story industrial buildings……………... 8
4. Frames of multi-storey industrial buildings…………… 20
5. Coatings of industrial buildings……………………………. 22
6. Light and aeration lamps………………. 23
7. Floors of industrial buildings…………………… 25
8. Roofs. Drainage from coatings…………………. 27
9. Other structural elements of industrial buildings 29
10. List of references………………………………… 33
Topic “Main types of industrial buildings and their design schemes”
1 Architectural and structural requirements for industrial buildings.
2 Classification of industrial buildings.
Industrial buildings include those buildings in which industrial products are manufactured. Industrial buildings differ from civil ones in their appearance, large size in plan, complexity of solving engineering equipment issues, large number of building structures, exposure to numerous factors (noise, dust, vibration, humidity, high or low temperatures, aggressive environments, etc.).
When developing a project for an industrial building, it is necessary to take into account the functional, technical, economic, architectural and artistic requirements, as well as to ensure the possibility of its construction using the flow-high-speed method using enlarged elements. When designing industrial buildings, care should be taken to create the best amenities for workers and normal conditions for the implementation of a progressive technological process.
The predetermining factor for determining the space-planning and structural schemes of industrial buildings is the nature of the technological process, therefore the main requirement for an industrial building is that the overall dimensions correspond to the technological process.
Industrial enterprises are classified by branches of production.
Industrial buildings, regardless of industry sector, are divided into 4 main groups:
- production;
- energy;
- transport and storage buildings;
- auxiliary buildings or premises.
TO production include buildings that house workshops that produce finished products or semi-finished products.
TO energy include thermal power plant buildings that supply industrial enterprises with electricity and heat, boiler houses, electrical and transformer substations, compressor stations, etc.
Building transport and storage facilities include garages, parking lots of outdoor industrial vehicles, finished product warehouses, fire stations, etc.
TO auxiliary include buildings for administrative and office premises, household premises and devices, first-aid posts and food stations.
By number of spans – single-, double- and multi-span. Single-span buildings are typical for small industrial, energy or warehouse buildings. Multi-spans are widely used in various industries.
By number of floors – single and multi-storey. In modern construction, one-story buildings predominate (80%). Multi-storey buildings are used in industries with relatively light technological equipment.
Based on the availability of handling equipment- on craneless and crane(with bridge or overhead equipment). Almost all industrial buildings are equipped with technical equipment.
According to the design schemes of coatings – frame flat(with coatings on beams, trusses, frames, arches), frame spatial(with coatings - shells of single and double curvature, folds); hanging various types _ cross, pneumatic, etc.
Based on the materials of the main load-bearing structures- With reinforced concrete frame(prefabricated, monolithic, prefabricated-monolithic), steel frame, brick load-bearing walls and coverings on reinforced concrete, metal or wooden structures.
By heating system– heated and unheated(with excess heat release, buildings that do not require heating - warehouses, storage facilities, etc.).
According to the ventilation system With natural ventilation through window openings; With artificial ventilation; With air conditioning.
By lighting system- With natural(through windows in the walls or through lanterns in the coverings), artificial or combined(integral) lighting.
By coating profile- With with or without lantern superstructures. Buildings with lantern superstructures are arranged for additional lighting, aeration, or both.
By the nature of the development – solid(hulls of great length and width); pavilion(relatively small width).
By the nature of the location of internal supports – span(span size prevails over column spacing); cell type(have a square or similar grid of columns); hall(characterized by large spans - from 36 to 100m).
1. What are the main requirements for industrial buildings?
2. Name the differences between industrial buildings and civil ones.
3. How industrial buildings are classified according to the nature of the location of internal supports.
4. Which industrial buildings are unheated?
5. What types of coatings are used in buildings with flat surfaces.
Topic: “Issues of typification and unification of industrial buildings”
Questions to be studied:
1 Forms of unification of space-planning and design solutions of industrial buildings.
2 System for linking structural elements to modular alignment axes.
The unification of space-planning and design solutions for industrial buildings has two forms - sectoral and intersectoral. For ease of unification, the volume of an industrial building is divided into separate parts or elements.
Volumetric planning element or spatial cell They call a part of a building with dimensions equal to the floor height, span and pitch.
A planning element or cell is the horizontal projection of a volumetric planning element. Space-planning and planning elements, depending on their location in the building, can be corner, end, side, middle and expansion joint elements.
Temperature block refers to a part of a building consisting of several volumetric planning elements located between longitudinal and transverse expansion joints and the end or longitudinal wall of the building.
Unification made it possible to reduce the number of standard sizes of structures and parts and thereby increase serial production and reduce the cost of their production; in addition, the number of types of buildings was reduced, conditions were created for blocking and introducing progressive technological solutions.
Unification of space-planning and design solutions is possible only if there is coordination of the dimensions of structures and the dimensions of buildings based on unified modular system using enlarged modules.
In order to simplify the design solution, one-story industrial buildings are designed mainly with spans of the same direction, the same width and height.
Height differences in multi-span buildings of less than 1.2 m are usually not suitable, since they significantly complicate and increase the cost of building solutions. The spacing of the columns along the outer and middle rows is taken on the basis of technical and economic considerations, taking into account technological requirements. Usually it is 6 or 12m. A larger step is also possible, but a multiple of the enlarged module of 6 m, if the height of the building and the magnitude of the design loads allow it.
In multi-storey industrial buildings, the grid of frame columns is assigned depending on the standard payload per 1 m2 of floor. The span dimensions are assigned as multiples of 3 m, and the column spacing is assigned as multiples of 6 m. The floor heights of multi-storey buildings are set as multiples of the enlarged module of 0.6 m, but not less than 3 m.
The location of walls and other building structures in relation to the modular alignment axes has a great influence on reducing the number of standard sizes of structural elements, as well as on their unification.
The unification of industrial buildings provides for a certain system of linking structural elements to modular alignment axes. It allows you to obtain an identical solution for structural components and the possibility of interchangeability of structures.
For one-story buildings, references have been established for the columns of the outer and middle rows, external longitudinal and end walls, columns in places where expansion joints are installed and in places where there is a height difference between spans of the same or mutually perpendicular directions. Choice " zero binding"or anchoring at a distance of 250 or 500 mm from the outer edge of the columns of the outer rows depends on the lifting capacity of the overhead cranes, the spacing of the columns and the height of the building.
This connection makes it possible to reduce the standard sizes of structural elements, take into account existing loads, install rafter structures and arrange passages along crane tracks.
Expansion joints are usually installed on paired columns. The axis of the transverse expansion joint must coincide with the transverse alignment axis, and the geometric axes of the columns are shifted from it by 500 mm. In buildings with a steel or mixed frame, longitudinal expansion joints are made on the same column with sliding supports.
The height difference between spans of the same direction or with two mutually perpendicular spans is arranged on paired columns with an insert, in compliance with the rules for columns of the outermost row and columns at the end walls. Insert sizes are 300, 350, 400, 500 or 1000mm.
In multi-storey frame industrial buildings, the alignment axes of the columns of the middle rows are combined with geometric ones.
The columns of the outer rows of buildings have a “zero reference”, or the inner edge of the columns is placed at a distance A from the modular centering axis.
Control questions
1. What is the purpose of unification and typification in industrial construction?
2. What is a temperature block?
3. What are the planning elements called depending on their location in the building?
4. How is the grid of columns assigned in single- and multi-story industrial buildings?
5. What does “zero binding” mean?
6. How are longitudinal expansion joints installed in buildings with a steel or mixed frame?
Topic: “Framework of one-story industrial buildings”
Questions to be studied:
1 Frame elements of one-story buildings.
2 Reinforced concrete frame.
3 Steel frame.
Industrial one-story buildings are usually built using a frame structure (Fig. 16.1). The frame is most often used reinforced concrete, less often steel; in some cases, an incomplete frame with load-bearing stone walls can be used.
The frames of industrial buildings, as a rule, are a structure consisting of transverse frames formed by columns, clamped in the foundations and hinged (or rigidly) connected to the roof crossbars (beams or trusses). In the presence of suspended transport equipment or suspended ceilings, as well as when suspending various communications, load-bearing structures of coverings in some cases can be placed every 6 m and sub-rafter structures can be used with a column spacing of 12 m. If there is no suspended transport equipment, rafters and trusses can be placed every 12 m , using slabs with a span of 12 m.
With a steel frame, the structural schemes are basically similar to those made of reinforced concrete and are determined by the combination of the main elements of the building - beams, trusses, columns, connected into a single whole (Fig. 16.2) .
Framed reinforced concrete frames are the main load-bearing structure of one-story industrial buildings and consist of foundations, columns, load-bearing structures of coverings (beams, trusses) and connections (see Fig. 16.1). Reinforced concrete frames can be monolithic or prefabricated. The predominant distribution is prefabricated reinforced concrete frames made from standardized prefabricated elements. Such a frame most fully satisfies the requirements of industrialization.
To create spatial rigidity, the flat transverse frames of the frame are connected in the longitudinal direction with foundation, strapping and crane beams and covering panels. In the planes of the walls, frames can be reinforced with half-timbered posts, sometimes called wall frame.
Foundations of reinforced concrete columns. The choice of a rational type, shape and proper size of foundations significantly affects the cost of the building as a whole. In accordance with the instructions of technical rules (TP 101–81), concrete and reinforced concrete free-standing foundations of industrial buildings on a natural foundation should be made monolithic and prefabricated monolithic (Fig. 16.3). In the foundations, widened holes are provided - glasses, shaped like a truncated pyramid (Fig. 16.3, I, III), for installing columns in them. The bottom of the foundation cup is placed 50 mm below the design mark of the bottom of the columns in order to compensate for possible inaccuracies in the dimensions of the height of the columns allowed during their manufacture by pouring mortar under the column and to level the top of all columns.
The dimensions of the foundations are determined by calculation depending on the loads and soil conditions.
Foundation beams are designed to support external and internal wall structures on free-standing frame foundations (see Fig. 16.3, II, III, c, d). To support the foundation beams, concrete columns are used, installed with cement mortar on the horizontal ledges of the shoes or on the foundation slabs. Installing walls on foundation beams, in addition to economic ones, also creates operational advantages - it simplifies the installation of all kinds of underground communications (channels, tunnels, etc.) underneath them.
To protect foundation beams from deformations caused by an increase in volume when heaving soils freeze, and to eliminate the possibility of freezing of the floor along the walls, they are covered with slag from the sides and bottom. Between the foundation beam and the wall, waterproofing is laid along the surface of the beam, consisting of two layers of rolled material on mastic. A sidewalk or blind area is installed along the foundation beams on the ground surface. To drain water, sidewalks or blind areas are given a slope of 0.03 - 0.05 from the building wall.
Columns. In one-story industrial buildings, they usually use unified solid reinforced concrete single-branch columns of rectangular cross-section (Fig. 16.5, a) and through two-branch columns (Fig. 16.5, b). Rectangular unified columns can have section dimensions: 400x400, 400x600, 400x800, 500x500, 500x800 mm, two-branch - 500x1000, 500x1400, 600x1900 mm, etc.
The height of the columns is selected depending on the height of the room N and the depth of their embedding A into the foundation glass. The embedment of columns below the zero mark in buildings without overhead cranes is 0.9 m; in buildings with overhead cranes 1.0 m - for single-branch columns of rectangular section, 1.05 and 1.35 m - for two-branch columns.
To lay crane beams on columns, crane consoles are installed. The upper crane part of the column supporting the load-bearing elements of the covering (beams or trusses) is called supracolumnar. To attach the load-bearing elements of the coating to the column, a steel embedded sheet is fixed at its upper end. In places where crane beams and wall panels are attached to the column (Fig. 16.7), steel embedded parts are placed. Columns with frame elements are mated by welding steel embedded parts with their subsequent concrete coating, and in the columns located along the outer longitudinal rows, steel parts are also provided for attaching elements of external walls to them.
Connections between columns. Vertical connections located along the line of the building columns create rigidity and geometric immutability of the frame columns in the longitudinal direction (Fig. 16.8 A, b). They are arranged for each longitudinal row in the middle of the temperature block. A temperature block is a section along the length of a building between expansion joints or between an expansion joint and the outer wall of the building closest to it. In buildings of low height (with column heights of up to 7...8 m), connections between columns can be omitted; in buildings of greater height, cross or portal connections are provided. Cross connections (Fig. 16.8, A) used at a step of 6 m, portal (Fig. 16.8, b) – 12 m, they are made from rolled angles and connected to columns by welding cross gussets with embedded parts (Fig. 16.7, G).
Flat load-bearing structures of coatings. These include beams, trusses, arches and rafter structures. The load-bearing structures of the covering are made of prefabricated reinforced concrete, steel, and wood. The type of load-bearing structures of the coating is assigned depending on the specific conditions - the size of the spans to be covered, the operating loads, the type of production, the availability of a construction base, etc.
Reinforced concrete roof beams. In some cases, reinforced concrete prestressed beams with a span of up to 12 m are used as load-bearing structures for single-pitch and low-slope roofs, gable lattice beams with a span of 12 and 18 m (Fig. 16.10, A– V)– in the presence of suspended monorails and crane beams. Single-pitch beams are intended for buildings with external drainage; gable beams can be used in buildings with both external and internal drainage. The widened supporting part of the beam (Fig. 16.10, G) hingedly attached to the column by means of anchor bolts released from the columns and passing through a support sheet welded to the beam.
Reinforced concrete trusses and roof arches. The outline of the roof truss depends on the type of roof, the location and shape of the lantern and the overall layout of the roof. For buildings with a span of 18 m or more, reinforced concrete prestressed trusses made of concrete grades 400, 500 and 600 are used. Trusses are preferable to beams in the presence of various sanitary and technological networks, conveniently located in the inter-truss space, and under significant loads from suspended transport and coating.
Depending on the outline of the upper chord, trusses are divided into segmental, arched, with parallel chords and triangular.
For spans of 18 and 24 m, braced trusses of a segmental outline are used (Fig. 16.11, b), as well as standard non-braced trusses for pitched and low-slope roofs (Fig. 16.11, a). The latter have certain advantages (convenient passage of communications, manufacturing technology features).
Trusses with parallel belts are used mainly in many existing enterprises with building spans of 18 and 24 m and pitches of 6 and 12 m. In some cases, prefabricated reinforced concrete arch structures are used to cover long-span industrial buildings. According to the structural design, arches are divided into two-hinged (with hinged supports), three-hinged (having hinges in the key and on the supports) and hingeless.
Steel frames are used in workshops with large spans and significant crane loads during the construction of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, etc.
In its structural design, a steel frame is generally similar to reinforced concrete and represents the main load-bearing structure of an industrial building, supporting the roof, walls and crane beams, and in some cases, process equipment and work platforms.
The main elements of the load-bearing steel frame, which absorb almost all the loads acting on the building, are flat transverse frames formed by columns and trusses (crossbars) (Fig. 16.14, I, a). The longitudinal frame elements - crane beams, wall frame beams (framework), covering purlins and, in some cases, lanterns - are supported on transverse frames, arranged according to the accepted column spacing. The spatial rigidity of the frame is achieved by installing connections in the longitudinal and transverse directions, as well as (if necessary) by rigidly securing the frame crossbar in the columns.
1. What factor is predetermining when determining the space-planning and structural structure of an industrial building.
2. Which buildings are classified as service buildings?
3. How are industrial buildings classified according to the nature of the location of internal supports?
4. In what cases is metal used as the main material of load-bearing elements?
5. What kind of lifting and transport equipment can industrial buildings be equipped with?
Topic: “Frames of multi-storey industrial buildings”
Questions to be studied:
1 General information.
2 Structural diagrams of buildings.
Multi-storey industrial buildings are used to house various industries - light engineering, instrument making, chemical, electrical, radio engineering, light industry, etc., as well as basic warehouses, refrigerators, garages, etc. They are designed, as a rule, frame with curtain wall panels.
The height of industrial buildings is usually taken according to the conditions of the technological process within 3...7 floors (with a total height of up to 40m), and for some types of production with light equipment installed on floors - up to 12...14 floors. The width of industrial buildings can be 18...36m or more. The height of floors and the grid of frame columns are assigned in accordance with the requirements for typing structural elements and unifying dimensional parameters. The height of the floor is taken as a multiple of the module 1.2 m, i.e. 3.6; 4.8; 6m, and for the first floor - sometimes 7.2m. The most common grid of frame columns is 6x6, 9x6, 12x6m. Such limited dimensions of the column grid are due to large temporary loads on the floors, which can reach 12 kN/m2, and in some cases 25 kN/m2 or more.
The main load-bearing structures of a multi-storey frame building are reinforced concrete frames and interfloor ceilings connecting them. The frame consists of columns, crossbars located in one or two mutually perpendicular directions, floor slabs and connections in the form of trusses or solid walls that serve as stiffening diaphragms. The crossbars can be supported on columns using cantilever or non-cantilever designs with the slabs placed on the shelves of the crossbars or on their top.
Columns frames consist of several mounting elements one, two or three floors high. The cross-section of the columns is rectangular 400x400 or 400x600 mm with trapezoidal consoles designed to support the crossbars. The outer columns have consoles on one side, and the middle ones have consoles on both sides.
The columns are made of concrete of classes B20...B50, the working reinforcement is made of hot-rolled steel of a periodic profile of class A-III. The joints of the columns are located above the floors at a height of 0.6...1 m. The design of the joint must ensure its strength is equal to the main section of the column.
Crossbars There are rectangular (when the slabs are supported on top of the crossbars) and with supporting shelves (when the slabs are supported at the same level with the crossbars). The height of the crossbars is unified: 800mm for a grid of columns 6x6m, 6x9m. In crossbars for buildings with a grid of columns 6x6m, non-prestressed working reinforcement made of bar steel of class A-III and concrete of classes B20 and B30 are used, and in crossbars for buildings with a grid of columns 9x6m, prestressed reinforcement made of steel of classes A-IIIb and A-IV is used. .
Interfloor structures beam floors are manufactured in two versions - with the slabs resting on the shelves of the crossbars and with the slabs resting on top of the rectangular crossbars. The dimensions of the main slabs laid on the beam flanges are 1.5 x 5.55 or 1.5 x 5.05 m (for laying at the end of the building and at expansion joints). When laying on top of the crossbars, slabs measuring 1.5 x 6 m are used. Additional slabs have a width of 0.75 m with a regular length.
Beamless floors in multi-storey industrial buildings they have a lower height than beam beams, due to which their use reduces the volume of the building. In addition, with beamless ceilings, the installation of pipelines under a flat ceiling is simplified and better conditions are created for ventilating the space underneath.
The reinforced concrete prefabricated frame consists of columns one storey high, capitals, above-column and span slabs of solid section. Columns with dimensions of 400 x 400, 500 x 500 and 600 x 600 mm have four-sided consoles and grooves along the sides of the trunk at the point of support of the capitals. The main capital has a square hole in the center, along the edges of which there are grooves. For the passage of utilities, capitals with round holes with a diameter of 100 and 200 mm are provided. There are reinforcement outlets at the ends of the slabs.
Buildings with non-beam structures may have self-supporting brick walls, self-supporting vertical and curtain wall panels. A frame building is considered as a system of multi-tiered multi-span frames with rigid units operating in two directions. These frames are formed by columns, capitals and slabs above the columns.
1. What elements are included in multi-storey industrial buildings.
2. What design solutions are used in beam floors?
3. Name the elements of beamless floors.
4. Purpose of capitals as part of beamless floors.
5. What kind of walls are used in buildings with beamless floors.
Topic: “Coatings of industrial buildings”
Questions to be studied:
1 General information.
2 Coating on reinforced concrete panels.
3 Coatings on steel profiled decking.
The enclosing part of the coating may include: roof(waterproofing layer) - most often rolled carpet, less often asbestos-cement corrugated sheets, etc.; leveling layer– screed made of asphalt or cement mortar; heat-protective(thermal insulation) layer, which, depending on local conditions, may consist of foam and expanded clay concrete slabs, mineral cork, etc.; vapor barrier, protecting the heat-insulating layer from moisture vapor penetrating into the coating from the room; load-bearing deck, supporting the enclosing elements of the coatings.
According to the degree of insulation, the enclosing structures of coatings of industrial buildings are divided into cold And insulated. In unheated rooms or hot shops with significant releases of industrial heat, the fencing coatings are designed to be cold (an insulating layer is not laid). In the premises of heated buildings, the coatings are insulated, and the degree of insulation is determined based on the requirement to prevent moisture condensation on their inner surface.
In unheated industrial buildings of mass construction, they are often used as load-bearing elements of coatings. pre-stressed concrete ribbed slabs 6 and 12 m long, usually with a width of 3 and less often 1.5 m. In heated buildings with a pitch of load-bearing roof truss structures equal to 6 m, panels made of lightweight, cellular and other concrete are used. Are widely used complex floorings, which combine all the necessary functions and arrive from the factory fully prepared with installed vapor barrier, insulation, screed, etc. After laying the flooring, the seams are sealed, a protective layer is laid and other non-labor-intensive operations are performed.
It is necessary to provide for laying the slabs on the load-bearing structures of the coating in such a way as to ensure the tightness of their support and the reliability of fastening the steel embedded parts to each other, as well as the subsequent grouting of the joints.
Various types steel profiled load-bearing deck Recently they have been used in industrial construction. It is made of steel with a thickness of 0.8...1.0mm with a rib height of 60...80mm with a width of flooring sheets of up to 1250mm and a length of up to 12m. The flooring is laid along the purlins or load-bearing structures of the coating and secured to the steel structures of the coating (lanterns and purlins) with self-tapping bolts with a diameter of 6 mm. The flooring elements are connected to each other using special rivets with a diameter of 5 mm.
Control questions
Topic “Light and aeration lanterns”
Questions to be studied:
1 Classification of lanterns and their design diagrams.
2 Light aeration lanterns.
3 Anti-aircraft lights.
According to their purpose, lanterns in industrial buildings are divided into light, light-aeration and aeration. They provide overhead natural lighting and, if necessary, ventilation of buildings. Lanterns, as a rule, are located along the spans of the building.
The lantern consists of a supporting structure - a frame and enclosing structures - a covering, walls and filling light or aeration openings.
Based on their shape, lanterns are divided into double-sided, single-sided (sheds) and anti-aircraft. Double-sided and single-sided lanterns can have vertical and inclined glazing. In this regard, the transverse profile of the lantern can be: rectangular, trapezoidal, toothed and sawtooth.
For ease of use (snow removal) and fire safety requirements, the length of the lanterns should be no more than 84 m. If a larger length is required, then the lanterns are arranged with gaps, the size of which is 6 m. For the same reasons, the lantern is not brought to the end walls at 6m.
The dimensions of the design diagrams of the lanterns are unified and coordinated with the main dimensions of the building. Typically, for spans of 12 and 18 meters, lanterns with a width of 6m are used, and for spans of 24, 30 and 36m - 12m. The height of the lantern is determined based on light and aeration calculations.
Light-aeration lanterns are designed in widths of 6 and 12 m for corrugated sheets and reinforced concrete slabs with a pitch of rafter structures of 6 and 12 m. They are a U-shaped superstructure on the roof of the building, in the longitudinal and end walls of which the light openings are filled with frames. The load-bearing structures of the lanterns consist of lantern panels, lantern trusses, and end panels. U-shaped steel frames of the lantern are installed on the supporting structures of the building's roof. The frame is a rod system consisting of vertical posts, an upper chord and braces, all elements of which are made of rolled metal and connected to each other using gussets using welding and bolts.
The stability of the lantern frame is ensured by the installation of horizontal and vertical connections. Horizontal and vertical cross-shaped braces are installed in the outer panels at the expansion joints, and spacers are installed in the plane of the crossbars of the transverse frames.
Skylights are made in the form of transparent domes with two-layer light-transmitting elements made of organic glass or in the form of glazed surfaces rising above the roof. They are used in cases where a high level and uniformity of room illumination is required. Rooflights can be of a spot type or panel type. The shape of the cap in plan can be round, square or rectangular, with vertical or inclined, cold or insulated walls of the side element. To increase the light activity of the lanterns, the inner surface of their side elements is made smooth and painted in light colors. Typically, the design of panel lights consists of several spotlights connected in a row.
The design of skylights consists of a light-transmitting filling, a steel glass, flashings, aprons and, if necessary, opening mechanisms. The light-transmitting filling for all skylights is assumed to be inclined at an angle of 12 to the plane of the coating. For light-transmitting filling, double-layer double-glazed windows 32 mm thick from window silicate glass 6 mm thick or channel-type profile glass are used.
The frame of skylights is steel glasses, the elements of which (longitudinal and transverse rods, bindings, mesh, etc.) are connected mainly with bolts. The aprons of skylights are made of galvanized steel with a thickness of 0.7 mm. In a 3x3m lantern, the joints between the double-glazed windows in the longitudinal and transverse directions are covered with aluminum strips attached to the supporting elements of the glass. The edges of the double-glazed windows along the bottom of the slope are covered with aluminum foil.
To illuminate large areas at a significant height of the workshop, skylights are placed in a concentrated manner. For example, on one slab measuring 1.5 x 6 m you can place four lanterns with a base size of 0. x 1.3 m.
1. In which buildings can light and aeration lamps be used, what is their purpose?
2. What could be the cross-section of the lanterns, sketch them.
3. What are the main unified dimensions of lanterns? How is their height determined?
4. List the main elements of light-aeration lanterns.
5. How is the stability of the lantern frame ensured?
6. In what cases are skylights used?
7. Name the structural elements of a skylight.
8. What is the light-transmitting filling for skylights made of?
Topic: “Floors of industrial buildings”
Questions to be studied:
1. General information
2. Floor design solutions
3. Connection of floors to channels and pits
In industrial buildings, floors are installed on the floors and on the ground. Floors experience impacts depending on the nature of the technological process. Static loads from the mass of various equipment, people, stored materials, semi-finished and finished products are transferred to the floor structure. Vibration, dynamic and shock loads are also possible. Hot shops are characterized by thermal effects on the floor. In some cases, floors are exposed to water and neutral solutions, mineral oils and emulsions, organic solvents, acids, alkalis, and mercury. These impacts can be systematic, periodic or random.
In addition to the usual ones, special requirements are also imposed on the floors of industrial buildings: increased mechanical strength, good abrasion resistance, fireproof and heat resistance, resistance to physical, chemical and biological influences; in explosive industries, the floors should not produce sparks upon impacts and the movement of trackless vehicles, floors must be dielectric and, if possible, be seamless.
When choosing the type of floor, first of all, take into account those requirements that are the most important in the conditions of a given production.
Structural floor plans. The floor structure consists of a covering, layer, screed, waterproofing, underlying layer and heat or sound insulating layers.
In industrial buildings, floors are classified depending on the type and material of the coating and are divided into three main groups.
First group- solid or seamless floors. They can be:
A) based on natural materials: earthen, gravel, crushed stone, adobe, clay concrete, combined;
b) based on artificial materials: concrete, steel concrete, mosaic, cement, slag, asphalt, asphalt concrete, tar concrete, xylolite, polymer.
Second group- floors made of piece materials. They can be: stone, cobblestone, paving stones, brick and clinker; from tiles and slabs of concrete, reinforced concrete, metal-cement, mosaic terrazzo, asphalt, tar concrete, xylolite, ceramic, cast iron, steel, plastic, wood fiber, cast slag, slag sital; wooden - end and plank.
Third group - floors made of roll and sheet materials: rolled - from linoleum, relin, synthetic carpets; sheet - from vinyl plastic, wood-fiber and wood-shaving sheets.
2.1 Solid or seamless floors
Earthen floors are installed in workshops where the floor may be exposed to large static and dynamic loads, as well as high temperatures. The earthen floor is most often made in one layer 200-300 mm thick with layer-by-layer insulation.
Gravel, crushed stone, and slag floors are used in driveways for rubber-powered vehicles and in warehouses. Gravel and crushed stone floors are made of two or three layers of gravel or crushed stone. The floor covering is a gravel-sand mixture 100-200 mm thick, followed by compaction with rollers. Coal slag is used for slag floors.
Concrete floors are used in rooms where the floor is systematically moistened or exposed to mineral oils, as well as in driveways when traffic moves on rubber and metal tires and caterpillar tracks.
The thickness of the coating depends on the nature of the mechanical impact and can be 50-100 mm; the coating is made of concrete grades 200 - 300. The floor surface is rubbed down after the concrete begins to set. To increase the strength of the concrete floor coating, steel or cast iron shavings and sawdust up to 5 mm in size are added to its composition.
Cement floors are used in the same cases as concrete floors, but in the absence of large loads, they are made with a thickness of 20-30 mm from cement mortar of compositions 1:2 - 1:3 on cement grades 300 - 400. Due to the great fragility of cement- sand covering, a hard underlying layer is arranged under it.
Control questions
1. What are the requirements for the floors of industrial buildings?
2. What types of floors are used in industrial buildings?
3. What factors does the thickness of the coating depend on?
4. What floors are classified as seamless?
5. Name the effects on the floors of industrial buildings.
Topic “Roofs. Drainage from coatings"
Questions to be studied:
1 Roofs of industrial buildings.
2 Drainage from coatings.
In modern industrial construction, pitched, low-slope roofs with a waterproofing carpet made of rolled materials - roofing felt, fiberglass, waterproofing, etc. are used. In most cases, it is recommended to design the coatings of heated buildings with roll or mastic (roll-free) roofing low-slope, i.e. with slopes from 1.5 to 5%. In cases where more heat-resistant mastics are used in certain areas, it is possible to design coatings with a slightly larger slope. In some cases, roofs are made of corrugated asbestos-cement and aluminum sheets.
Flat roof structures are distinguished by the following qualities: multi-layered, relatively fusible and high ductility of adhesive mastic; the thin roll material used is glued in even layers; A protective double coating of fine gravel (or slag) on hot mastic is placed on top of the carpet to reliably protect the carpet from direct mechanical and atmospheric influences.
Flat roofs filled with water are made of four layers of only leather, waterproofing, tar and bitumen material with two protective layers of gravel. In places where roofs adjoin parapets (see Fig. 1), walls, shafts and other protruding structural elements, the main waterproofing carpet is reinforced with additional layers of rolled or mastic materials. The upper edge of the additional waterproofing carpet should rise above the roof by 200...300 mm. It is secured and protected from water leakage and exposure to solar radiation with aprons made of galvanized roofing steel.
Water drainage from the roofs of heated multi-span buildings, as a rule, should be provided for internal drains. A roof with external water drainage can be designed if there is no rainwater drainage on the site, the height of the buildings is no more than 10 m and the total length of the roof (with a slope in one direction) is no more than 36 m with appropriate justification. External drainage in one-story, single-bay industrial buildings is usually taken arbitrary, i.e. unorganized.
In unheated industrial buildings it is necessary to design free discharge of water from the coating.
In case of internal drainage, the location of water intake funnels, outlet pipes and risers that collect and discharge water into the rainwater drainage system is determined in accordance with the dimensions of the covering area and the outline of its cross section. From the riser, water flows into the underground part of the drainage network, which can be constructed from concrete, asbestos-cement, cast iron, plastic or ceramic pipes, depending on local conditions (Fig. 1, a).
To ensure reliable drainage of water into the network of internal drains, the design of roofing valleys is of particular importance. The required slope towards the water intake funnels is created by laying a layer of lightweight concrete of variable thickness in the valleys, forming a watershed. Along the perimeter of a building with internal drains, parapets are provided (Fig. 1, b), and for external free discharge of water from the roof - cornices (Fig. 2). The system of internal roof drains consists of water intake funnels, risers, outlet pipelines and outlets into the sewer system .
The waterproofness of roofs in the places where drainage funnels are installed is achieved by gluing onto the flange of the funnel bowl layers of the main waterproofing carpet, reinforced with three mastic layers, reinforced with two layers of fiberglass or fiberglass mesh (Fig. 1, d).
When draining water through internal drains, it is necessary to ensure uniform placement of funnels over the roof area.
The maximum distance between drainage funnels on each longitudinal alignment axis of the building should not exceed 48 m for pitched roofs, and 60 m for low-slope (flat) roofs. In the transverse direction of the building, at least two funnels should be located on each longitudinal alignment axis of the building.
When determining the estimated drainage area, an additional 30% of the total area of vertical walls adjacent to the roof and rising above it should be taken into account.
1. What are the qualities of a flat roof design?
2. How are the junctions of flat roofs and parapets decided?
3. How is water drainage from the roofs of industrial buildings solved?
4. What drainage system is used in unheated buildings.
5. What elements does the internal drainage system consist of?
1. What elements are included in the coatings.
2. In what rooms are cold coverings used?
3. Name the composition of the complex panel.
4. Purpose of vapor barrier as part of the coating.
5. How steel profiled sheets are fastened.
Topic “Other structural elements of industrial buildings”
Questions to be studied:
1 Arrangement of technical floors, work platforms and shelves.
2 Partitions, gates and stairs for special purposes.
In multi-storey, large-span industrial buildings for production with technological processes that require large storage and auxiliary areas, it is advisable to arrange technical floors. They are also suitable for placing air conditioning units, supply and exhaust ventilation, air ducts, transport and other utilities.
In universal multi-storey industrial buildings, load-bearing structures in the form of beams, trusses, arches with a pitch of 3-6 m are used to cover spans of 12-36 m. Their height (2-3 m) provides the possibility of placement in the inter-beam, inter-truss or inter-arch space of technical or auxiliary floors.
Technical floors are also installed in one-story industrial buildings. They can be located in basements, with lattice load-bearing covering structures - in the space between them, and with solid ones - technical floors are suspended.
The suspended ceiling simultaneously serves as the floor of the technical floor and is made of ribbed reinforced concrete slabs laid on reinforced concrete T-beams. The beams are suspended from the load-bearing structures of the covering.
Work or technological sites they set up workshops (suspended and overhead cranes), engineering (fans, air conditioning chambers, etc.) and technological equipment (blast furnaces, boilers, etc.) to service the above-ground transport facilities. Depending on their purpose they are divided into transitional, landing, repair and inspection.
Work sites are also used to place technological equipment on them. In the chemical, oil and other industries, work platforms in the form of whatnot, in the metallurgical industry - in the form single-tier overpasses.
Transition, landing, repair, inspection, as well as work platforms for light technological equipment consist of a beam supporting structure, decking and fencing. The load-bearing structures of the sites rest either on the main structures of the building, or on technological equipment, or on specially arranged supports.
In construction practice, prefabricated steel partitions have become widespread. The main advantage of such partitions is their technological flexibility. The shelves have a frame designed according to a bracing scheme, with a hinged connection between crossbars and columns and a rigid connection between columns and columns. The maximum height of the shelves is 18m.
The frame consists of columns, ties and paired crossbars, which rest on the columns using removable metal consoles. The consoles are attached to the columns with tie bolts at any height that is a multiple of 120 mm. The crossbars are positioned in the transverse direction. The rigidity of the frame is achieved with the help of metal ties - portal in the transverse direction and cross with spacers in the longitudinal direction. Floor slabs are laid along crossbars in the longitudinal direction without fastening, which makes it possible to create openings in any areas of the floors.
Prefabricated shelving structures have a grid of frame columns with spans of 4.5 - 9 m, multiples of 1.5 m at a pitch of 6 m. In the transverse direction, you can have cantilever sections of floors with an overhang of 1.5 or 3 m.
Distinctive feature partitions, arranged in industrial buildings is that in most cases they are arranged prefabricated to a height less than the height of the workshop premises. This solution ensures quick dismantling in case of changes in the production process. Stationary partitions are made of brick, small blocks, slabs or large panels of fireproof materials.
Prefabricated partitions are made from panels or panels made of wood, metal, reinforced concrete, glass or plastic. The stability of the panel partition is achieved by introducing a light frame into the structure, consisting of racks and trims located at the top or bottom. The frame posts are installed on special foundation slabs.
Recently, partitions made of lightweight, efficient materials have become increasingly common - laminated plastics, fiberglass, asbestos-cement sheets, wood-fiber or particle boards with lightweight metal frames.
To enter an industrial building of vehicles, move equipment and pass a large number of people, they arrange gates. Their dimensions are linked to the requirements of the technological process and the unification of the structural elements of the walls. Thus, for the passage of electric cars and trolleys, gates with a width of 2 m and a height of 2.4 m are used, for vehicles of various carrying capacities - 3x3, 4x3 and 4x3.6 m, for narrow-gauge transport - 4x4.2 m, and for broad-gauge railway transport - 4.7x5.6 m .
According to the method of opening, gates are divided into swing, sliding, folding (multi-leaf), lifting, curtain, sliding multi-leaf. Gate leaves are made of wood, wood with a steel frame and steel. Gates can be insulated, cold, with or without wickets.
Swing gates are widely used. If the size of the canvases is small, the gates are made of wood. If the height or width of the gate is more than 3 m, a gate with a steel frame is installed. Wooden gate leaves consist of a frame with one or more mullions and cladding made of tongue-and-groove boards 25 mm thick in one or two layers. The frame to which the gate leaves are hung can be made of wood, metal or reinforced concrete.
Stairs in industrial buildings are divided into basic, service, fire and emergency.
Basic stairs are designed for communication between floors, as well as for the evacuation of people in case of fire and accident.
Service stairs provide communication with work platforms on which equipment is installed, and in some cases they are used for additional communication between floors. Service stairs also serve the landing and repair platforms of overhead cranes.
Firefighters Stairs are designed in case of fire to provide access to the upper floors and to the roof of the building. Emergency Stairs are used only to evacuate people from a building in case of fire or accident. In addition to the main emergency and fire escapes, emergency escape routes can be specially arranged slopes and rods both inside and outside the building.
Service staircases are made open, with a through design and a steep climb. The service staircase consists of intermediate platforms and prefabricated flights of stairs. The supporting structure of the flight consists of two strings made of strip or angle steel, to which steps that have only a tread are attached. When the staircase has a slope of up to 60, the steps are made of corrugated steel sheets with the front edge bent for rigidity.
Metal fire escapes are located along the perimeter of the building every 200 m in production buildings and every 150 m in auxiliary buildings in cases where the height to the top of the eaves exceeds 10 m. If the height of the building is less than 30 m, the stairs are arranged vertical with a width of 600 mm, and with a height of 30 m or more - inclined at an angle of no more than 80, with a width of 700 mm with intermediate platforms at least 8 m in height.
Fire escapes are installed against the walls, do not reach the ground level by 1.5-1.8 m and, if there are lanterns on the roof, are placed between them.
Emergency steel ladders have the same design as service or fire ladders, but they must be brought to the ground. The slope of their marches should be no more than 45, the width should not be less than 0.7 m, and the vertical distance between the platforms should not be more than 3.6 m.
1. What is the purpose of technical floors and work areas?
2. How technological sites are divided according to purpose.
3. What elements does the frame of prefabricated shelves consist of?
4. Name the advantages of prefabricated partitions. What materials are they made from?
5. Purpose of gates in industrial buildings. How are their sizes determined?
6. How are gates classified according to the method of opening?
7. Name the types of stairs used in industrial buildings.
8. What is the difference between fire escape and emergency escape ladders?
9. What design do service stairs have?
10. In what places in industrial buildings are metal fire escapes installed?
Span - the distance between the alignment axes in the direction of the supporting structures (for reinforced concrete frames: 6, 12, ..., 24 m, for metal frames: 6, 12, ... 36 m).
Step - the distance between the alignment axes in the direction perpendicular to the span (6, 12m)
Floor height - (1) for multi-story buildings: the distance from the floor of the stairwell of a given floor to the floor of the next floor; (2) for one-story buildings: distance from the floor to the bottom of the truss structure (3, 3.3, 3.6, 4.2 ... 18 m)
The configuration and dimensions of the plan, the height and profile of an industrial building are determined by the parameters, number and relative position of spans. These factors depend on the production technology, the nature of the products, the productivity of the enterprise, the requirements of sanitary standards, etc.
Span width in an industrial building (L) - the distance between the longitudinal coordination axes - is the sum of the span of the overhead crane (Lк) and twice the distance between the axis of the crane track rail and the modular coordination axis (2К): L= Lк + 2К (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. To determine the span parameters
The spans of overhead cranes are linked to the width of the spans and are determined by GOST. The K value is taken as follows: 750 mm for cranes with a lifting capacity Q ≤ 500 kN; 1000 mm (and more multiples of 250 mm) at Q > 500 kN, as well as when installing a passage in the overhead part of the columns for servicing crane runways.
The minimum permissible width of spans, determined by the conditions of production technology (dimensions and nature of equipment, system of its placement, width of passages, etc.) is not always economically feasible. Workshops that are equal in area and have the same length can be either short-span or large-span, and in some cases long-span. For example, a building 72 m wide can be formed by six 12 m bays, four 18 m bays, three 24 m bays, two 36 m bays, or one 72 m wide bay. It must be remembered that long-span buildings, having an enlarged axial grid, are highly versatile in technological terms.
Column pitch – the distance between the transverse coordination axes is determined taking into account the dimensions and method of arrangement of technological equipment, the dimensions of manufactured products, and the type of intra-shop transport. Thus, with large-sized equipment and large products, the column spacing is large, which increases the efficiency of using production space, but complicates the design of the coating and crane runways. Typically, the column spacing is 6 or 12 m.
Span height– the distance from the level of the finished floor to the bottom of the load-bearing structures of the coating – depends on the technological, sanitary, hygienic and economic requirements for an industrial building. It is formed in spans with overhead cranes from the distances from the level of the finished floor to the top of the crane rail H1 and the distance from the top of the rail to the bottom of the load-bearing structure of the covering H2 (Fig. 1).
Single-story buildings are usually designed with parallel spans of the same width and height. In cases of technological necessity, buildings are designed with mutually perpendicular spans of different widths and heights. In the latter cases, it is recommended to combine height differences with longitudinal expansion joints, and the height difference should be a multiple of 0.6 m and not less than 1.2 m.
Structural solutions for industrial buildings
Structural systems of industrial buildings are carried out according to various design schemes. Basically, for industrial buildings, a frame scheme is used, in which strength, rigidity and stability are ensured by spatial frame frames, both with transverse or longitudinal arrangement of crossbars, and without crossbars.
The choice of design scheme is carried out taking into account the specific loads and impacts on the building, as well as in accordance with functional, economic and aesthetic requirements. The most preferable is a frame system with a transverse arrangement of crossbars, in which frames are formed in the transverse direction, which, together with the connections, provide spatial rigidity and stability of the building and allow, by changing the pitch of the columns, to provide flexibility in the planning solution of the internal space of the building. Frame systems are the main type of industrial buildings, since they are subject to large concentrated loads, impacts, and shocks from process equipment and cranes.
Frameless buildings house small workshops with spans up to 12 m wide, up to 6 m high and cranes with a lifting capacity of up to 50 kN. In places where rafter structures support, the walls on the inner sides are reinforced with pilasters. Multi-storey industrial buildings using a frameless system are very rarely built.
Industrial buildings with an incomplete frame are designed for light loads: craneless with Q
In-shop handling equipment
The technological process requires the movement of raw materials, semi-finished products, finished products, etc. inside the building. The lifting and transport equipment used in this case is necessary not only from the point of view of production technology, but also to facilitate labor, as well as for the installation and dismantling of technological units.
In-shop lifting and transport equipment is divided into 2 groups:
- periodic action;
- continuous action.
The first group includes overhead cranes, suspended and floor-mounted transport. The second group includes: conveyors (belt, plate, scraper, bucket, hanging chain), elevators, roller conveyors and augers.
Bridge and overhead cranes are mainly used in industrial buildings. They serve a fairly large workshop area and move in three directions.
Suspended cranes have a lifting capacity from 2.5 to 50 kN, rarely up to 200 kN, and consist of a lightweight bridge or load-bearing beam, two- or four-roller mechanisms for moving along overhead tracks and an electric hoist that moves along the lower flange of the bridge beam (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Main parameters of suspended single girder cranes
One or more cranes are installed along the width of the span, depending on the width of the span, the pitch of the load-bearing structures of the coating, and the load capacity. Depending on the number of tracks, overhead cranes can be single-, double- and multi-span. The cranes are controlled from the workshop floor (manual) or from a cabin suspended from a bridge.
Overhead cranes have a lifting capacity from 30 to 5000 kN. Cranes with a lifting capacity from 59 to 300 kN are mainly used.
An overhead crane consists of a load-bearing bridge spanning the working span of the room, moving mechanisms along the crane tracks, and a trolley with a lifting mechanism moving along the bridge.
The load-bearing bridge is made in the form of spatial four-plane box-beam or truss structures. The cranes move on rails laid on crane beams resting on column consoles. Overhead cranes are controlled from a cabin suspended from the bridge or from the workshop floor (manually operated cranes).
The load capacity, dimensions and main parameters of overhead cranes, as well as overhead cranes, are determined by GOSTs (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Basic parameters of spans with overhead cranes
Depending on the duration of work per unit of operating time of the workshop, overhead cranes are divided into heavy-duty cranes (Usage = 0.4), medium-duty (Usage = 0.25 - 0.4) and light duty (Usage = 0, 15 – 0.25).
In one span, two or more cranes can be installed, located either on one or two levels of the workshop.
Very often, the space-planning and design solutions of industrial buildings are determined by the availability and characteristics of crane equipment. Designers strive to reduce the lifting capacity of cranes or completely free the building frame from crane loads. Since this makes it possible to reduce the cross-sections of columns and the size of foundations, get rid of the construction of crane runways and be able to use an enlarged grid of columns.
Technological processes in buildings without cranes are served by floor transport. These include trolleys, roller tables, truck cranes and loaders.
To move bulky and heavy loads, it is advisable to use gantry and semi-gantry cranes moving along rails laid at the workshop floor level. One support of a semi-gantry crane is the crane runway. When replacing overhead cranes with gantry cranes, an increase in the span and height of the building is required. Thus, for spans of 12 and 15 m such increases in span and height should be 3 m and 1.6 m, respectively, and for a span of 18 m - 6 and 3 m, respectively. However, the refusal of overhead cranes in one-story buildings leads to a significant economic effect, because Removing crane loads from the frame, in addition to saving materials, opens up the possibility of creating lightweight, long-span buildings with spatial coating systems.
Whoever is on turned out to be the smartest!