In what year was Julius Caesar born? Gaius Julius Caesar - biography of the emperor

Bust of Julius Caesar from the collection of the British Museum. Photograph of Roger Fenton, commissioned by the British Museum. Approximately 1856 Royal Photographic Society

Julius Caesar is probably the most famous character of ancient history, and indeed of all ancient history. Only Alexander the Great can compete with him. Countless volumes of scientific works, popular biographies and fiction have been written about Caesar. He was played in films by such outstanding actors as John Gielgud, Rex Harrison, Klaus Maria Brandauer and Ciaran Hinds. Around any outstanding historical figure, sooner or later a husk of myths and legends grows. Caesar did not escape this either.

Myth 1. His name was Caius Julius Caesar

Let's start with the name. Caesar, like almost every Roman boy from a good family, had three names: first, praenomen, or personal name (Gaius) - there were very few of them in Ancient Rome, Gaius was one of the most common; secondly, a nomen, or family name (Iulius), and thirdly, a cognomen, originally a nickname with some dictionary meaning, attached to a branch of the clan and becoming hereditary (Cicero - Pea, Naso - Nosy). What the word Caesar meant is unknown. There were many explanations: Caesar himself claimed that it was “elephant” in the “Moorish language,” and Pliny the Elder raised the word to the verb caedo, “to cut, cut,” arguing that the very first Caesar (not ours, but one of his ancestors) was born from a cut uterus, that is, as a result of a procedure later known as a caesarean section. Already thanks to the glory of our Julius Caesar, his cognomen in various forms entered many languages ​​of the world as a synonym for ruler - Caesar, Kaiser, Tsar.

The variant Kai (not Gaius) Julius Caesar has been around in everyday speech for a very long time. It is also found in literature: for example, in the fantastic story “Ghosts” by Turgenev, in “The Golden Calf” by Ilf and Petrov, or in “The White Guard” by Bulgakov. A search through the corpus of Russian literature texts produces 18 results for the query “Caius Julius” versus 21 for “Gai Julius,” almost equally divided. Ivan Ilyich in Tolstoy recalls an example from the “Logic” of the German Kantian philosopher Johann Gottfried Kiesewetter: “Caius is a man, people are mortal, therefore Caius is mortal” (in Kiesewetter: “Alle Menschen sind sterblich, Caius ist ein Mensch, also ist Caius sterblich” ). This is also, of course, “Caius” Julius Caesar. In languages ​​with Latin-based graphics, the variant Caius instead of Gaius also continues to be found - not only in novels, but also, for example, in the books of the modern British popularizer of antiquity Adrian Goldsworthy. This writing is the result not so much of a misunderstanding, but of a peculiar ancient Roman idea of ​​fidelity to tradition.

Although the sounds [k] and [g] have always been different in Latin, this difference was not initially reflected in writing. The reason was that the Etruscan (or some other Northern Italic) alphabet, from which Latin developed, did not have a stop [g]. When the volume of written information began to increase and literacy began to spread (in antiquity, in principle, there were not many free people who could not read and write at least at a primitive level), it became necessary to somehow distinguish between letters denoting dissimilar sounds, and C was attached tail. As linguist Alexander Piperski notes, the letter G is an innovation with a diacritic like the letter E, only more successful from a historical perspective. The letter E, as you know, was popularized by Karamzin, and Roman lovers of antiquities recorded that G was introduced into the alphabet by a certain Spurius Carvilius, a freedman and the first owner of a private elementary school in Rome, in the 3rd century BC. e.

The capital C, representing the sound [g], was often used as the initial of the names Guy and Gnaeus (C and CN, respectively). Such initials were found in dedicatory inscriptions, on tombstones, and in other contexts of increased importance. The Romans were very neurotic about this kind of thing and preferred not to change anything about them. Therefore, in the inscriptions starting from the 2nd century BC. e. we often see the letter G where it should be (for example, in the word AVG, an abbreviation for Augustus), but at the same time the name Guy is abbreviated in the old fashioned way as S. The same with the name Gnei, which is abbreviated as CN (however, the form “Knei” ", as far as I know, is not found anywhere in Russian).

Most likely, it was this ambiguity that caused the split of the popular Roman name into the correct Guy and the erroneous Kai. Kai from Andersen's "The Snow Queen" is most likely not related to Caesar - this is a common Scandinavian name, and there are many other etymological hypotheses about its origin, mainly going back to the Frisian languages.

Myth 2. We know what he looked like

Let's look at some sculptural portraits.

The first is the so-called Tusculan portrait, excavated in 1825 by Lucien Bonaparte (brother of Napoleon I). It is kept in the Museum of Antiquities of Turin. Several more sculptural images, stored in the National Roman Museum, the Hermitage, the New Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, etc., belong to the same type.

Tusculan portrait from the Museum of Antiquities of Turin. Dated to 50–40 BC.© Gautier Poupeau / Wikimedia Commons

Copy from a Tusculan portrait. 1st century BC e. - I century AD e.© J. Paul Getty Trust

Copy from a Roman original of the 1st century AD. e. Italy, 16th century© State Hermitage Museum

The second common type of portrait of Caesar is the so-called bust of Chiaramonti (now kept in the Vatican Museums). Adjacent to it is another bust from Turin, sculptures from Parma, Vienna and a number of others.

Bust of Chiaramonti. 30-20 BC ancientrome.ru

The famous “Green Caesar” is kept in the Berlin Antique Collection.

"Green Caesar" from the exhibition of the Old Museum. 1st century BC e. Louis le Grand / Wikipedia Commons

Finally, in the fall of 2007, another alleged bust of Julius Caesar was raised from the bottom of the Rhone River near the French city of Arles.

Bust of Julius Caesar from Arles. Approximately 46 BC. e. IRPA / Musée Arles Antique / Wikipedia Commons

You can also see a good selection of sculptural portraits of Caesar here.

It is noticeable that even within the same type, the portraits are not very similar to each other, and if you compare one type with another, it is not at all clear how they can be the same person. At the same time, ancient Roman portrait sculpture was distinguished by a very high level of realism and consistently achieved portrait resemblance. To be convinced of this, just look at the numerous portraits of later emperors - Augustus, for example, or Marcus Aurelius. They cannot be confused with each other or with anyone else.

What's the matter? The fact is that almost all the ancient sculptural portraits that have come down to us are not signed and their attribution is a highly guess-working matter. Signed portrait images were found only on coins, and Caesar was the first Roman whose image appeared on coins during his lifetime (this happened in 44 BC, and already on March 15 of this year, on the ever-memorable Ides of March, he was killed ). Caesar's denarius, minted by the mint official Marcus Mettius, became the model for all later coins of imperial times.

Obverse of the denomination of Mar-ka Met-tius with the image of Julius Caesar. 44 BC e. Museum of Fine Arts / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

The 55-year-old Caesar was depicted on the denarius with the realism characteristic of the late Republican era: a very long neck with folds, a protruding Adam's apple, a wrinkled forehead, a thin face, in some versions - wrinkles in the corners of the eyes, a wreath, which, according to rumors, Caesar camouflaged his baldness. But still, a coin is a special genre, and the attribution of a sculptural bust on the basis of a stylized numismatic picture is an unreliable matter. Of course, archaeologists from Arles wanted as many people as possible to know about the Roman bust of outstanding quality - which is undoubtedly a rare find - and this should also help finance the work. And for such a purpose, the “bust of Julius Caesar” is more suitable than the “bust of an unknown Roman.” The same caution must be applied to all other sculptural images of Julius Caesar.

In how the public imagines a character, reputation is often more important than credibility. If you do a Google image search for Emperor Vitellius, the first thing you see is a bust from the Louvre depicting an obese, arrogant man with a triple chin. This correlates well with the image of the emperor, who, according to Suetonius, “was most distinguished by gluttony and cruelty.” But the surviving coins show a completely different face - a man also not thin, but certainly not with a snub nose.

Bust of a man (pseudo-Vitellius). Copy from an earlier sculpture. 16th century© Wikimedia Commons

Denarius of Emperor Vitellius. '69© Wikimedia Commons

Myth 3. He could do several things at once.

Have you ever heard your mother or grandmother say, “Don’t read while you eat, you’re not Gaius (or Caius) Julius Caesar”? At the heart of this warning is the idea that Caesar could multitask and that this kind of multitasking was a unique ability that most people did not have.

Firstly, this meme is most common in Russia. In Western European cultures there is no such stable expression, although the fact itself is known and sometimes mentioned. However, finding it in sources is not so easy. Suetonius says nothing about this in his biography of Caesar. Plutarch, with reference to a certain Oppius, notes that Caesar “during the campaign, he also practiced dictating letters while sitting on a horse, simultaneously employing two or even ... an even larger number of scribes.” This remark is inserted between a mention of his dashing physical dexterity (“He knew how to put his hands back and put them behind his back, to launch his horse at full speed” - if you think that this is not so difficult, I remind you that ancient horsemen did not use stirrups) and a story about the invention of SMS (“They say that Caesar was the first to come up with the idea of ​​​​conversing with friends about urgent matters through letters, when the size of the city and exceptional busyness did not allow meeting in person”).

Julius Caesar dictates his sayings. Painting by Pelagio Palagi. 19th century Palazzo del Quirinale/Bridgeman Images

Pliny the Elder speaks in somewhat more detail about this feature in his monumental work Natural History. He finds the liveliness of mind that distinguished Caesar unprecedented: “They report that he could write or read and at the same time dictate and listen. He could dictate four letters to his secretaries at a time, and on the most important issues; and if he was not busy with anything else, then seven letters.” Finally, Suetonius, in his biography of Augustus, notes that Julius Caesar, during the circus games, “read letters and papers or wrote answers to them,” for which he was subject to criticism, and Augustus made efforts not to repeat this PR mistake of his adoptive father.

We see that we are not talking about real parallel processing, but (as happens with computers) about quickly switching from one task to another, about competent distribution of attention and prioritization. The life of a public person in antiquity posed tasks to his memory and attention that were incomparable with those that modern people have to solve: for example, any speech, even many hours, had to be learned by heart (opportunities for improvisation, of course, existed, but the general outline in any case had to keep it in my head). Nevertheless, even against this background, Caesar’s abilities made an indelible impression on his contemporaries.

Napoleon Bonaparte, whose desire to imitate and surpass Caesar is well documented, was also famous for his ability to dictate up to seven letters at once and, according to the memoirs of one of his secretaries, Baron Claude François de Meneval, attributed this superpower to his virtuoso mastery of the technique, which in modern managerial jargon is called compartmentalization . “When I want to take my mind off something,” Napoleon said, according to Meneval, “I close the box in which it is stored and open another. The two things never mix and never bother or tire me. When I want to sleep, I close all the drawers." This system of spatial visualization of topics or tasks also dates back to classical antiquity.

Bonus track. Where was Julius Caesar killed?

Death of Julius Caesar. Painting by Jean Leon Gerome. 1859-1867 Walters Art Museum

Caesar was killed on his way to a Senate meeting. This fact, combined with the authority of Shakespeare (who places the assassination scene somewhere near the Capitol - that is, perhaps in the Forum, over the western part of which Capitol Hill rises), gives many the erroneous impression that he was killed directly in the Senate building . The Senate building still stands on the Forum and is even called the Julian Curia. But during the time of Caesar he was not there: the old curia burned down during the unrest that preceded his reign, he ordered a new one to be built, but did not have time to see it (it was completed under Augustus; the building that has survived to this day is even later, from the time of Emperor Diocletian) .

While there was no permanent meeting place, senators gathered wherever they could (this practice has always existed and did not stop after the construction of the curia). On this occasion the place of the meeting was the portico of the newly erected Theater of Pompey; there the conspirators attacked Caesar. Today this point is located in a square called Largo di Torre Argentina. In the 1920s, the ruins of four very old temples from the Republican era were discovered there. Under Augustus, the site of Caesar's murder was walled up as if it were cursed, and a public latrine was built nearby, the remains of which can still be seen today.

Sources

• Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. Divine Julius.
• Caius Pliny Sec. Natural history.
• Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Alexander and Caesar.
• Balsdon J.P.V.D. Julius Caesar and Rome.
• Goldsworthy A. Caesar: Life of a Colossus.

  New Haven; London, 2008.

• A Companion to Julius Caesar.

Name: Gaius Julius Caesar

Age: 56 years old

Place of Birth: Rome, Italy

A place of death: Rome, Italy

Activity: Ancient Roman commander

Family status: was married

Gaius Julius Caesar - biography

Words symbolizing power still remind us of him - tsar, Caesar, Kaiser, emperor. Julius Caesar Guy was endowed with many talents, but he remained in history thanks to the main one - his ability to please people

Origin played a significant role in Caesar's success - the Julian family, according to the biography, was one of the most ancient in Rome. Julia traced their ancestry back to the legendary Aeneas, the son of the goddess Venus herself, who fled from Troy and founded the dynasty of Roman kings. Caesar was born in 102 BC, when his aunt's husband Gaius Marius defeated an army of thousands of Germans at the borders of Italy. His father, whose name was also Gaius Julius Caesar, did not reach heights in his career. He was proconsul of Asia. However, Caesar the Younger’s relationship with Marius promised the young man a brilliant career.

At the age of sixteen, Guy the Younger married Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, Marius's closest ally. In 82 or 83 BC. they had a daughter, Julia, Caesar’s only legitimate child, despite the fact that he began to produce illegitimate children in his youth. Often leaving his wife bored alone, the descendant of Venus wandered around the taverns in a cheerful company of drinking companions. The only thing that distinguished him from his peers was his love of reading - Guy read all the books in Latin and Greek that he could find, and more than once amazed his interlocutors with his knowledge in various fields.

Being a fan of ancient sages. he did not believe in the permanence of his life, peaceful and prosperous. And he turned out to be right - after the death of Mary, a civil war broke out in Rome. The leader of the aristocratic party, Sulla, came to power and began repressions against the Marians. Guy, who refused to divorce Cinna's daughter, was deprived of his property, and he himself was forced to go into hiding. “Look for the wolf cub, there are a hundred Maries sitting in it!” - demanded the dictator. But by that time Caesar had already left for Asia Minor, to the friends of his recently deceased father.

Not far from Miletus, his ship was captured by pirates. The smartly dressed young man attracted their attention, and they asked for a large ransom for him - 20 talents of silver. “You value me inexpensively!” - Caesar answered and offered 50 talents for himself. Having sent his servant to collect the ransom, he spent two months as a “guest” with the pirates.

Caesar behaved very impudently with the robbers - he forbade them to sit in his presence, called them boors and threatened to crucify them on the cross. Having finally received the money, the pirates were relieved to let the impudent man go. Caesar immediately rushed to the Roman military authorities, equipped a couple of ships and overtook his captors in the same place where he was held captive. Having taken their money, he actually crucified the robbers - however, those who were sympathetic to him, he first ordered to be strangled.

Sulla had died by that time, but his supporters from the Optimates party retained influence, and Caesar was in no hurry to return to the capital. He spent a year in Rhodes, where he studied eloquence - the ability to make speeches was necessary for the politician, which he firmly intended to become.

From the school of Apollonius Molon, where Cicero himself studied, Guy emerged as a brilliant orator, ready to conquer the capital. He made his first speech in 68 BC. at the funeral of his aunt, the widow Maria, he passionately praised the disgraced commander and his reforms, causing a stir among the Sullans. It is curious that at the funeral of his wife, who died during an unsuccessful birth a year earlier, he did not utter a word.

The speech in defense of Marius was the beginning of his election campaign - Caesar put forward his candidacy for the post of quaestor. This insignificant post provided the opportunity to become a praetor, and then a consul - the highest representative of power in the Roman Republic. Having borrowed from anyone a huge sum, a thousand talents, Caesar spent it on luxurious feasts and gifts to those. on whom his election depended. At that time, two generals, Pompey and Crassus, were fighting for power in Rome, to whom Caesar alternately offered his support.

This earned him the position of quaestor and then aedile, the official in charge of the festivities in the Eternal City. Unlike other politicians, he generously gave the people not bread, but entertainment - either gladiator fights, or musical competitions, or the anniversary of a long-forgotten victory. Ordinary Romans were delighted with him. He earned the sympathy of the educated public by creating a public museum on Capitol Hill, where he exhibited his rich collection of Greek statues. As a result, he was elected without any problems to the position of Supreme Pontiff, that is, priest.

Believing in nothing but my luck. Caesar had difficulty remaining serious during lavish religious ceremonies. However, the position of pontiff made him inviolable. This saved his life when the Catalina conspiracy was discovered in 62. The conspirators were going to offer Caesar the post of dictator. They were executed, but Guy survived.

In the same year 62, he became praetor, but accumulated so many debts that he was forced to leave Rome and go to Spain as governor. There he quickly made a fortune, ruining rebellious cities to the ground. He generously shared the surplus with his soldiers, saying: “Power is strengthened by two things - troops and money, and one is unthinkable without the other.” Grateful soldiers declared him emperor - this ancient title was given as a reward for a major victory, although the governor did not win a single such victory.

After this, Caesar was elected consul, but this position was no longer the limit of his dreams. The republican system was living out its last days, things were moving toward autocracy, and Guy was determined to become the true ruler of the Eternal City. To do this, he had to enter into an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, whom he briefly reconciled.

In 60, a triumvirate of new allies seized power. To seal the alliance, Caesar gave his daughter Julia to Pompey, and he himself married his niece. Moreover, rumor attributed to him a relationship with the wives of Crassus and Pompey. And other Roman matrons, according to rumors, were not spared the attention of the loving descendant of Venus. The soldiers sang a song about him: “Hide your wives - we are leading a bald libertine into the city!”

He really went bald at an early age, was embarrassed about it, and obtained permission from the Senate to constantly wear the triumphant laurel wreath on his head. Bald. according to Suetonius. was the only flaw in Caesar's biography. He was tall, well built, had fair skin, black and lively eyes. He was moderate in food, and he also drank very little for a Roman; even his enemy Cato said that “Caesar was the only one who carried out a coup d’etat while sober.”

He also had another nickname - “the husband of all wives and the wife of all husbands.” According to rumors, in Asia Minor, young Caesar had an affair with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes. Well, the morals in Rome at that time were such that this could well be true. In any case, Caesar never tried to silence the scoffers, professing the completely modern principle of “no matter what they say, as long as they say it.” They said mostly good things - in his new post, he still generously supplied the Roman mob with spectacles, to which he now added bread. People's love was not cheap, the consul again fell into debt and, in irritation, called himself “the poorest of citizens.”

He sighed with relief when, after a year as consul, he had to resign, according to Roman custom. Caesar got the Senate to send him to rule Schlia - present-day France. The Romans owned only a small part of this rich country. In eight years, Caesar managed to conquer all of Scotland. But, oddly enough, many Gauls loved him - having learned their language, he asked with interest about their religion and customs.

Today, his “Notes on the Gallic War” is not only the main source of biography about the Gauls, who went into oblivion not without the help of Caesar, but one of the first examples of political PR in history. Caesar boasted in them. that he took 800 cities by storm, exterminated a million enemies, and enslaved another million, giving their lands to Roman veterans. Grateful veterans told on all corners that Caesar walked with them on campaigns, encouraging those lagging behind. He rode his horse like a natural rider. He slept in a cart under the open sky, only covering himself with a canopy when it rained. At a halt, he dictated two or even three letters to several secretaries on different topics.

Caesar's correspondence, which was so lively in those years, was explained by the fact that after the death of Crassus in the Persian campaign, the triumvirate came to an end. Pompey increasingly distrusted Caesar, who had already surpassed him in both fame and wealth. At his insistence, the Senate recalled Caesar from Gillia and ordered him to report to Rome, leaving the army on the border.

The decisive moment has arrived. At the beginning of 49, Caesar approached the border river Rubicon north of Rimini and ordered five thousand of his soldiers to cross it and march on Rome. They say that at the same time he uttered another historical phrase - “the die is cast.” In fact, the die was cast much earlier, even when young Guy was mastering the intricacies of politics.

Even then he realized that power is given into the hands only of those who sacrifice everything else for it - friendship, family, a sense of gratitude. Pompey's former son-in-law, who helped him a lot at the beginning of his career, now became his main enemy and, not having time to gather his strength, fled to Greece. Caesar and his army went after him and... without allowing him to come to his senses, he defeated his army at Pharsalus. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where local dignitaries killed him, deciding to earn Caesar's favor.

He was quite happy with this outcome, especially since it gave him the opportunity to send an army against the Egyptians, accusing them of murdering a Roman citizen. Having demanded a huge ransom for this, he was going to pay off the army, but everything turned out differently. Young Cleopatra, the sister of the ruling king Ptolemy XTV, who came to the commander, unexpectedly offered herself to him - and at the same time her kingdom.

Before leaving for Gaul, Caesar married for the third time - to the rich heiress Calpurnia, but was indifferent to her. He fell in love with the Egyptian queen as if she had bewitched him. But over time, she also experienced a real feeling for the aging conqueror of the world. Later, Caesar, under a hail of reproaches, received Cleopatra in Rome, and she listened to even worse reproaches for going to him, the first of the Egyptian rulers to leave the sacred Nile Valley.

In the meantime, the lovers found themselves besieged by the rebel Egyptians in the harbor of Alexandria. To save themselves, the Romans set the city on fire. destroying the famous library. They managed to hold out until reinforcements arrived, and the uprising was suppressed. On his way home, Caesar casually defeated the army of the Pontic king Pharnaces, reporting this to Rome with the famous phrase: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

He had to fight twice more with Pompey's followers - in Africa and Spain. Only in 45 he returned to Rome, devastated by civil wars, and was declared dictator for life. Caesar himself preferred to call himself emperor - this emphasized his connection with the army and military victories.

Having achieved the desired power, Caesar managed to do three important things. First, he reformed the Roman calendar, which the sarcastic Greeks called “the worst in the world.” With the help of Egyptian astronomers. sent by Cleopatra, he divided the year into 12 months and ordered an extra leap day to be added to it every four years. The new Julian calendar turned out to be the most accurate of the existing ones and lasted for one and a half thousand years, and the Russian Church still uses it to this day. Second, he gave amnesty to all his political opponents. Third, he began to mint gold coins, on which, instead of gods, the emperor himself was depicted in a laurel wreath. After Caesar, they began to officially call him the Son of God.

From this it was only a step to the royal title. Flatterers had long offered him the crown, and Cleopatra had just given birth to his son Caesarion, who could become his heir. It seemed tempting to Caesar to found a new dynasty, uniting the two great powers. However, when his closest ally Mark Antony publicly wanted to put a golden royal crown on him, Caesar pushed him away. Maybe he decided that the time had not yet come, perhaps he didn’t want to turn from the only emperor in the world into an ordinary king, of which there were many around.

The little that was done is easy to explain - Caesar ruled Rome peacefully for less than two years. The fact that he was remembered for centuries as a great statesman is another manifestation of his charisma, which affects his descendants as strongly as his contemporaries. He planned new reforms, but the Roman treasury was empty. To replenish it. Caesar decided on a new military campaign, which promised to make the Roman emperor the greatest conqueror in history. He decided to crush the Persian kingdom, and then return to Rome by the northern route, conquering the Armenians, Scythians and Germans.

When leaving the capital, he had to leave reliable people “on the farm” in order to avoid a possible rebellion. Caesar had three such people: his devoted comrade-in-arms Mark Antony, his adopted son, Gaius Octavian, and the son of his longtime mistress Servilia, Mark Brutus. Antony attracted Caesar with the decisiveness of a warrior, Octavian with the cold prudence of a politician. It is more difficult to understand what connected Caesar with the already middle-aged Brutus, a boring pedant, an ardent supporter of the republic. Nevertheless, Caesar promoted him to power, publicly calling him his “dear son.” Perhaps, with the sober mind of a politician, he understood that someone should remind him of the republican virtues, without which Rome would rot and perish. At the same time, Brutus could reconcile his two comrades, who clearly did not like each other.

Caesar, who knew everything and everyone. didn't know - or didn't want to know. -that his “son”, along with other Republicans, is preparing a conspiracy against him. The Emperor was informed about this more than once, but he brushed it aside, saying: “If this is so, then it is better to die once than to constantly live in fear.” The assassination attempt was scheduled for the Ides of March - the 15th day of the month, when the emperor was supposed to appear in the Senate. Suetonius' detailed account of this event creates the impression of a tragic action in which Caesar, as if to perfection, played the role of a victim, a martyr of the monarchical idea. At the Senate building, he was given a warning note, but he waved it off.

One of the conspirators, Decimus Brutus, distracted the burly Anthony at the entrance so as not to interfere. Tillius Cymbrus grabbed Caesar by the toga - this is a signal to the others - and Servilius Casca dealt him the first blow. Then the blows rained down one after another - each of the killers tried to make their contribution, and in the melee they even wounded each other. Then the conspirators parted, and Brutus approached the barely alive dictator, leaning against a column. The “Son” silently raised the dagger, and the struck Caesar fell dead, having managed to utter the last historical phrase: “And you, Brutus!”

As soon as this happened, the horror-stricken senators, who became unwitting spectators of the murder, rushed to run. The killers also fled, throwing away their bloody daggers. Caesar's corpse lay in an empty building for a long time until the faithful Calpurnia sent slaves to fetch him. The dictator's body was burned in the Roman Forum, where the temple of the divine Julius was later erected. The month of the quintiles was renamed July (Iulius) in his honor.

The conspirators hoped that the Romans would be faithful to the spirit of the republic. but the firm power established by Caesar seemed more attractive than republican chaos. Very soon the townspeople rushed to look for the emperor's killers and put them to brutal death. Suetonius ended his story about the biography of Gaius Julia with the words: “Of his murderers, none lived more than three years after that. They all died in different ways, and Brutus and Cassius killed themselves with the same dagger with which they killed Caesar.”

Family

Gaius Julius Caesar was born in Rome, into a patrician family from the Julius family, which played a significant role in the history of Rome since ancient times.

The Yuliev family traced its ancestry back to Yul, the son of the Trojan prince Aeneas, who, according to mythology, was the son of the goddess Venus. At the height of his glory, in 45 BC. e. Caesar founded the temple of Venus the Progenitor in Rome, thereby hinting at his relationship with the goddess. Cognomen Caesar made no sense in Latin; the Soviet historian of Rome A.I. Nemirovsky suggested that it comes from Cisre, the Etruscan name for the city of Caere. The antiquity of the Caesar family itself is difficult to establish (the first known one dates back to the end of the 3rd century BC). The father of the future dictator, also Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder (proconsul of Asia), stopped in his career as a praetor. On his mother's side, Caesar came from the Cotta family of the Aurelia Aurelius family with an admixture of plebeian blood. Caesar's uncles were consuls: Sextus Julius Caesar (91 BC), Lucius Julius Caesar (90 BC)

Gaius Julius Caesar lost his father at the age of sixteen; He maintained close friendly relations with his mother until her death in 54 BC. e.

A noble and cultured family created favorable conditions for his development; careful physical education later served him considerable service; a thorough education - scientific, literary, grammatical, on Greco-Roman foundations - formed logical thinking, prepared him for practical activity, for literary work.

First marriage and service in Asia

Before Caesar, Julia, despite her aristocratic origins, were not rich by the standards of the Roman nobility of that time. That is why, until Caesar himself, almost none of his relatives achieved much influence. Only his paternal aunt, Julia, married Gaius Marius, a talented general and reformer of the Roman army. Marius was the leader of the democratic faction of the populares in the Roman Senate and sharply opposed the conservatives from the optimates faction.

Internal political conflicts in Rome at that time reached such intensity that they led to civil war. After the capture of Rome by Marius in 87 BC. e. For a time, the power of the popular was established. The young Caesar was honored with the title of flamen of Jupiter. But, in 86 BC. e. Mari died, and in 84 BC. e. During a mutiny among the troops, Cinna was killed. In 82 BC e. Rome was taken by the troops of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Sulla himself became dictator. Caesar was connected by double family ties with the party of his opponent - Maria: at the age of seventeen he married Cornelia, the youngest daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, an associate of Marius and the worst enemy of Sulla. This was a kind of demonstration of his commitment to the popular party, which by that time had been humiliated and defeated by the all-powerful Sulla.

In order to perfectly master the art of oratory, Caesar specifically in 75 BC. e. went to Rhodes to the famous teacher Apollonius Molon. Along the way, he was captured by Cilician pirates, for his release he had to pay a significant ransom of twenty talents, and while his friends collected money, he spent more than a month in captivity, practicing eloquence in front of his captors. After his release, he immediately assembled a fleet in Miletus, captured the pirate fortress and ordered the captured pirates to be crucified on the cross as a warning to others. But, since they treated him well at one time, Caesar ordered their legs to be broken before the crucifixion in order to alleviate their suffering. Then he often showed condescension towards defeated opponents. This is where “Caesar’s mercy”, so praised by ancient authors, was manifested.

Caesar briefly participates in the war with King Mithridates at the head of an independent detachment, but does not remain there for long. In 74 BC e. he returns to Rome. In 73 BC e. he was co-opted into the priestly college of pontiffs in place of the deceased Lucius Aurelius Cotta, his uncle.

Subsequently, he wins the election to the military tribunes. Always and everywhere, Caesar never tires of reminding of his democratic beliefs, connections with Gaius Marius and dislike for aristocrats. Actively participates in the struggle for the restoration of the rights of the people's tribunes, curtailed by Sulla, for the rehabilitation of the associates of Gaius Marius, who were persecuted during the dictatorship of Sulla, and seeks the return of Lucius Cornelius Cinna - the son of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and the brother of Caesar's wife. By this time, the beginning of his rapprochement with Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus began, on a close connection with whom he built his future career.

Caesar, being in a difficult position, does not say a word to justify the conspirators, but insists on not subjecting them to the death penalty. His proposal does not pass, and Caesar himself almost dies at the hands of an angry crowd.

Spain Far (Hispania Ulterior)

(Bibulus was consul only formally; the triumvirs actually removed him from power).

Caesar's consulate is necessary for both him and Pompey. Having disbanded the army, Pompey, for all his greatness, turns out to be powerless; none of his proposals pass due to the stubborn resistance of the Senate, and yet he promised his veteran soldiers land, and this issue could not tolerate delay. Supporters of Pompey alone were not enough; a more powerful influence was needed - this was the basis of Pompey’s alliance with Caesar and Crassus. The consul Caesar himself was in dire need of the influence of Pompey and the money of Crassus. It was not easy to convince the former consul Marcus Licinius Crassus, an old enemy of Pompey, to agree to an alliance, but in the end it was possible - this richest man in Rome could not get troops under his command for the war with Parthia.

This is how what historians would later call the first triumvirate arose - a private agreement of three persons, not sanctioned by anyone or anything other than their mutual consent. The private nature of the triumvirate was also emphasized by the consolidation of its marriages: Pompey to Caesar’s only daughter, Julia Caesaris (despite the difference in age and upbringing, this political marriage turned out to be sealed by love), and Caesar to the daughter of Calpurnius Piso.

At first, Caesar believed that this could be done in Spain, but a closer acquaintance with this country and its insufficiently convenient geographical position in relation to Italy forced Caesar to abandon this idea, especially since the traditions of Pompey were strong in Spain and in the Spanish army.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 58 BC. e. in Transalpine Gaul there was a mass migration to these lands of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii. After the victory over the Helvetii in the same year, a war followed against the Germanic tribes invading Gaul, led by Ariovistus, ending in the complete victory of Caesar. Increased Roman influence in Gaul caused unrest among the Belgae. Campaign 57 BC e. begins with the pacification of the Belgae and continues with the conquest of the northwestern lands, where the tribes of the Nervii and Aduatuci lived. In the summer of 57 BC e. on the bank of the river Sabris took place a grandiose battle of the Roman legions with the army of the Nervii, when only luck and the best training of the legionnaires allowed the Romans to win. At the same time, a legion under the command of legate Publius Crassus conquered the tribes of northwestern Gaul.

Based on Caesar's report, the Senate was forced to decide on a celebration and a 15-day thanksgiving service.

As a result of three years of successful war, Caesar increased his fortune many times over. He generously gave money to his supporters, attracting new people to himself, and increased his influence.

That same summer, Caesar organized his first, and the next, 54 BC. e. - second expedition to Britain. The legions met such fierce resistance from the natives here that Caesar had to return to Gaul with nothing. In 53 BC e. Unrest continued among the Gallic tribes, who could not come to terms with oppression by the Romans. All of them were pacified in a short time.

After the successful Gallic Wars, Caesar's popularity in Rome reached its highest point. Even such opponents of Caesar as Cicero and Gaius Valerius Catullus recognized the great merits of the commander.

Conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey

Ancient Roman coin with a portrait of Julius Caesar.

The brilliant results of the first expeditions enormously raised Caesar's prestige in Rome; Gallic money supported this prestige no less successfully. Senate opposition to the triumvirate, however, did not sleep, and Pompey in Rome experienced a number of unpleasant moments. In Rome, neither he nor Crassus felt at home; both wanted military power. Caesar, in order to achieve his goals, needed continued powers. Based on these desires in winter - gg. A new agreement of the triumvirs took place, according to which Caesar received Gaul for another 5 years, Pompey and Crassus - a consulate for the 55th year, and then proconsulates: Pompey - in Spain, Crassus - in Syria. The Syrian proconsulate of Crassus ended with his death.

Pompey remained in Rome, where, after his consulate, complete anarchy began, perhaps not without the efforts of Julius Caesar. Anarchy reached such proportions that Pompey was elected in 52 BC. e. consul without a panel. The new rise of Pompey, the death of Pompey's wife, Caesar's daughter (54 BC), and a series of intrigues against Caesar's growing prestige inevitably led to a rift between the allies; but the uprising of Vercingetorix temporarily saved the situation. Serious clashes began only in 51 BC. e. Pompey appeared in the role that he had long sought - as the head of the Roman state, recognized by the Senate and the people, uniting military power with civil power, sitting at the gates of Rome, where the Senate (Ancient Rome) was meeting with him, possessing proconsular power and controlling a strong seven-legion army in Spain. If earlier Pompey needed Caesar, now he could only be a hindrance for Pompey, which had to be eliminated as soon as possible, due to the fact that Caesar’s aspirations were incompatible with Pompey’s position. The conflict, which had already matured personally in 56, was now also mature politically; his initiative should have come not from Julius Caesar, whose position was incomparably worse politically and in relation to the rule of law, but from Pompey, who had all the trump cards in his hands, except military ones, and even the latter were few only in the first moments. Pompey set things up in such a way that the conflict between him and Caesar turned out to be not a personal clash, but a clash between the revolutionary proconsul and the Senate, that is, the legal government.

Cicero's correspondence serves as a documentary touchstone showing the accuracy of Caesar's own account of events in his historical political pamphlet entitled De bello civili. The 109th book of Titus Livy would have been of great importance if it had come to us in the original and not in extracts by Florus, Eutropius and Orosius. The basis of Livy's presentation was preserved for us, perhaps, by Cassius Dio. We also find a lot of data in a brief sketch of an officer from the time of Emperor Tiberius, Velleius Paterculus; Suetonius gives a lot, something - the author of a historical poem from the time of the civil war, a contemporary of Nero, Lucan. Appian and Plutarch's account of the civil war probably goes back to the historical work of Asinius Pollio.

According to the agreement of Caesar and Pompey in Lucca 56 and the subsequent law of Pompey and Crassus 55, Caesar's powers in Gaul and Illyricum were to end on the last day of February 49; at the same time, it was definitely stated that until March 1, 50, there would be no speech in the Senate about a successor to Caesar. In 52, only the Gallic unrest prevented a break between Caesar and Pompey, caused by the transfer of all power into the hands of Pompey, as a single consul and at the same time proconsul, which upset the balance of the duumvirate. As compensation, Caesar demanded for himself the possibility of the same position in the future, that is, the union of the consulate and the proconsulate, or, rather, the immediate replacement of the procoxulate with the consulate. To do this, it was necessary to obtain permission to be elected consul for 48 without entering the city during 49, which would be tantamount to renouncing military power.

A plebiscite in 52, held in March by the entire tribunal college, gave Caesar the requested privilege, which Pompey did not contradict. This privilege, according to customs, also contained a silent continuation of the proconsulate until January 1, 48. The success of Julius Caesar in the fight against Vercingetorix made the government regret the concession made - and in the same year a number of martial laws were passed against Caesar. Pompey continued his power in Spain until 45; to eliminate the possibility of Caesar immediately renewing his proconsulate after the consulate, a law was passed that prohibited sending to the provinces earlier than 5 years after the completion of the magistracy; finally, in direct reversal of the privilege just given, a decree was confirmed that prohibited seeking magistracy without being in Rome. To the law already passed, contrary to all legality, Pompey added, however, a clause confirming Caesar's privilege.

In 51, the happy ending of the Gallic wars gave Caesar the opportunity to once again act actively in Rome. He asked the Senate, seeking formal recognition of the privilege, to continue the proconsulate in at least part of the province until January 1, 48. The Senate refused, and this put the question of appointing a successor to Julius Caesar on the line. However, the trial of this case was legal only after March 1, 50; Until this time, any intercession of tribunes friendly to Caesar was formally completely solid. Caesar sought to personally settle his relations with Pompey; the extremes in the Senate did not want to allow this; the middle ones were looking for a way out, finding it in Pompey standing at the head of the army assigned to the Parthian War, which was urgently necessary in view of the defeat and death of Crassus. Pompey himself was seriously ill and spent most of his time away from Rome.

In 50, the matter was supposed to take a more acute turn, especially since Caesar found himself an agent brilliant in political intrigue - Curio, who was elected tribune for that year. Of the consuls, one - Aemilius Paulus - was on the side of Caesar, the other - C. Marcellus - was completely against him, as the leader of the Senate ultra-conservatives. Curio's goal was to quarrel between the Senate and Pompey and force the latter to again enter into relations with Caesar. To do this, he opposed any resolution of the Senate on the provinces and demanded that legality be fully restored, that is, that both Pompey and Caesar renounce their powers. In the spring Pompey became very ill; During his recovery, he agreed in writing to Curio's terms and, having finally recovered, moved towards Rome. He was accompanied by continuous triumph; meetings, prayers, etc. gave him confidence that all of Italy was for him. Despite this, even at Rome he did not take back the consent he had given. It is very possible that at the end of 50 there was a new diplomatic campaign by Caesar, calling Pompey to an agreement; Parthia was probably pointed to as a means of reconciliation. Pompey could be there in his sphere and renew his eastern laurels. An indicator of Caesar's peaceful mood and the possibility of an agreement is that Caesar gave up, at the request of the Senate, two of his legions (one loaned to him by Pompey) and sent them to Italy in the direction of Brundusium.

In the autumn of 50, Caesar finally appeared in Northern Italy, where he was greeted by a copy of the celebrations given to Pompey. In November he was again in Gaul, where the political demonstration that had just taken place in Italy was followed by a military one in the form of a review of the legions. The year was drawing to a close, and the situation was still extremely uncertain. The reconciliation between Caesar and Pompey finally failed; a symptom of this is that Caesar's legions, sent in November to Brundusium, were detained in Capua and then awaited events in Luceria. In the Senate, G. Marcellus energetically sought to have Julius Caesar declared illegally possessing power and an enemy of the fatherland, for which there was no legal basis. The majority of the Senate, however, was peaceful; The Senate most wanted Caesar and Pompey to both resign. Marcellus's main opponent was Curio. On December 10, he could no longer function as a tribune: on that day new tribunes entered. But even now Marcellus failed to attract the Senate with him; then he, not wanting to transfer the matter into the hands of the new consuls, accompanied by several senators, without any authority, appeared on December 13 at Pompey's Cuman villa and handed him a sword to defend the free system. Pompey, having decided to go to war, takes advantage of the opportunity and goes to join the legions in Luceria. Caesar quite correctly considers the act of December 13 to be the beginning of unrest - initium tumultus - on the part of Pompey. Pompey's actions were illegal and were immediately (21 December) declared as such in a speech by Antony, one of Julius Caesar's legates and tribunes that year. Curio personally informed Caesar, who was in Ravenna at that time, about what had happened. The situation remained uncertain, but Pompey had two excellent legions in his hands, he enlisted the support of one of the people closest to Caesar - T. Labienus; Caesar had only one legion of veterans in Italy and, in the event of an offensive, had to act in a country hostile to him - so, at least, it seemed to Pompey - a country. However, by now Pompey probably had in mind to settle the final scores not in Italy, but in the provinces.

For Caesar, the most important thing was to gain time; the pretext for starting hostilities was already in his hands, but there was little strength for war. In any case, it was to his advantage that the start of action would be a surprise to his enemies. Curio presented Caesar's ultimatum to the Senate on January 1. Caesar announced his readiness to relinquish power, but together with Pompey, and threatened otherwise with war. The threats caused open opposition from the Senate: Pompey should not resign, Caesar should resign before July 49; both were, however, completely legal. The tribunes M. Antony and Cassius protested against the Senate Consult. After this, however, discussions continued about how to find a modus vivendi without war. Caesar also wanted the same. Before January 7, its new, softer conditions were received in Rome. Pompey was to go to Spain; For himself, Caesar asked for the continuation of power until January 1, 48, at least only in Italy, with an army of only 2 legions. Cicero, who appeared on January 5 under the walls of Rome after returning from his Cilician proconsulate, achieved a further concession: only Illyria and 1 legion were demanded by Caesar. Pompey, however, did not agree to these conditions.

On January 7, the Senate met and made every effort to get the tribunes to take back the intercession of January 1. Antony and Cassius were unshakable. The consul then demanded their removal from the Senate. After Antony's heated protest, Cassius, Caelius Rufus and Curio left the Senate and, dressed as slaves, secretly, in a hired cart, fled to Caesar. After the removal of the tribunes, the consuls were given extraordinary powers by the Senate in order to prevent unrest. In a further meeting outside the city walls, in the presence of Pompey and Cicero, the decretum tumultus was voted, that is, Italy was declared under martial law; provinces were distributed and money allocated. The commander-in-chief was actually Pompey, named after four proconsuls. The whole point now was how Caesar would react to this, whether the grandiose preparations for war with him would intimidate him.

Caesar received news of the actions of the Senate from the fugitive tribunes on January 10. He had about 5,000 legionary soldiers at his disposal. Half of this force was stationed on the southern border of the province, near the Rubicon River. It was necessary to act as quickly as possible in order to take the Senate by surprise, before official news arrived about the Senate’s demands of January 1 having finally been carried out in a legal manner. Caesar secretly devotes the day of the 10th to the necessary orders, at night - again secretly - with several relatives he rushes to the army, crosses the border of his province - the Rubicon - and captures Ariminum, the key of Italy. At the same time, Anthony with another part of the army goes to Arretium, which also captures with an unexpected onslaught. In Ariminum, Caesar is caught by the Senate ambassadors recruiting new troops. Caesar tells them that he wants peace and promises to clear the province by July 1, as long as Illyria remains behind him, and Pompey retires to Spain. At the same time, Caesar persistently demands a meeting with Pompey. Meanwhile, terrible rumors are spreading in Rome. The Senate, upon the return of the ambassadors, having forced Pompey's consent, sends them again to Caesar. There should be no meeting with Pompey (the Senate could not allow an agreement between them); Caesar was promised a triumph and a consulate, but first of all he must clear the occupied cities, go to his province and disband the army. Meanwhile, Ancona and Pisaurus were occupied by Caesar on January 14 and 15. The hopes of the Senate and Pompey that Caesar would give them time to prepare were dashed.

Pompey, with his recruits and two Caesar's legions, found it difficult to go on the offensive, and it was difficult to put everything on the line defending Rome. In view of this, without waiting for the return of the embassy, ​​Pompey leaves Rome on January 17 with almost the entire Senate, sealing the treasury, in terrible haste. From now on Capua becomes Pompey's main residence. From here he thought, taking legions in Luceria, to capture Picenum and organize a defense there. But already on January 27-28, Picenum, with his main point Auximus, found himself in the hands of Caesar. The garrisons of the occupied cities passed to Caesar; his army grew, his spirit rose. Pompey finally decided to abandon Italy and organize resistance in the East, where he could command alone, where there was less interference from all sorts of colleagues and advisers; the senators did not want to leave Italy. They left the treasury in Rome, hoping to return, against the will of Pompey. Meanwhile, the embassy returned from Caesar with nothing; there was no longer any hope for negotiations. It was necessary to force Pompey to defend Italy. Domitius Ahenobarbus with 30 cohorts locks himself in Corfinia and calls Pompey to the rescue. For the proceeds, the Senate promises the treasury demanded by Pompey. But Pompey takes advantage of the time while Yu. Caesar is besieging Domitius to concentrate forces in Brundusium and organize a crossing. In mid-February, Corfinium was captured; Yu. Caesar hurries to Brundusium, where everything is ready for defense. March 9, the siege begins; On the 17th, Pompey, with a clever maneuver, distracts the enemy’s attention, puts the army on ships and leaves Italy. From this moment on, the struggle moves to the provinces. During this time, the Caesarians managed to occupy Rome and establish some semblance of a government there.

Caesar himself appeared in Rome only for a short time in April, seized the treasury and made some orders regarding the actions of his legates during his absence. In the future, he was presented with two courses of action: either to pursue Pompey, or to turn against his forces in the west. He chose the latter, apparently because Pompey's eastern forces were less scary to him than the 7 old legions in Spain, Cato in Sicily and Varus in Africa. What made his actions in Spain easier was the fact that his rear was covered by Gaul, and success at the very beginning was especially important and dear. The main danger was Spain, where Pompey's three legates - Afranius, Petreius and Varro - commanded. In Gaul, Caesar was detained by Massilia, who sided with Pompey. Caesar did not want to waste time here; He left three legions to besiege the city, while he himself quickly moved to the Sicoris River, where his legate Fabius, who was camped opposite the fortified Pompeian camp near the city of Ilerda, was waiting for him. After long and tedious operations, Caesar managed to force the Pompeians to abandon their strong camp. With a quick march and ingenious detour, he made the position of the enemy retreating to the Ebro so difficult that Pompey’s legates had to surrender. Varro also had no choice. Here, as in Italy, Yu. Caesar did not resort to executions and cruelties, which greatly facilitated the possibility of surrender of troops in the future. On the way back, Caesar found Massilia completely exhausted and accepted her surrender.

During his absence, Curio ousted Cato from Sicily and managed to cross to Africa, but here, after ephemeral successes, he could not withstand the onslaught of the Pompeian troops and the Moorish king Juba and died with almost his entire army. Caesar now had a difficult task ahead of him. Pompey's forces were, however, weaker, but he had complete control of the sea and managed to thoroughly organize the quartermaster unit. His strong cavalry and allied contingents of Macedonians, Thracians, Thessalians and others also gave him a great advantage. The land route to Greece, where Pompey established himself, was closed; G. Anthony, who occupied Illyria, was forced to surrender with his 15 cohorts. Here, too, we could only hope for speed and surprise of action. Pompey's main apartment and his main supplies were in Dyrrhachium; he himself stood in Thessalonica, his army in Peraea. Quite unexpectedly, on November 6, 49, Caesar sailed with 6 legions from Brundusium, captured Apollonia and Oricum and moved to Dyrrachium. Pompey managed to warn him, and both troops faced each other at Dyrrhachium. Caesar's position was unenviable; The small number of troops and the lack of provisions made themselves felt. Pompey, however, did not dare to fight with his not very reliable army. Around spring, M. Anthony managed to deliver the remaining three legions, but this did not change the situation. Fearing the arrival of Pompey's reserve from Thessaly, Caesar sent part of his army against him, and with the rest tried to block Pompey. Pompey broke the blockade and inflicted a strong defeat on Caesar. After this, Caesar could only lift the blockade and go to join his Thessalian army. Here Pompey caught up with him at Pharsalus. The Senate party in his camp insisted that a decisive battle be fought. The superiority of forces was on the side of Pompey, but training and spirit were entirely on the side of the 30,000th army of Yu. Caesar. The battle (June 6, 48) ended in the complete defeat of Pompey; the army almost completely surrendered, Pompey fled to the nearest harbor, from there to Samos and finally to Egypt, where he was killed by order of the king. Caesar pursued him and appeared after his death in Egypt.

With a small army, he entered Alexandria and intervened in the internal affairs of Egypt. He needed Egypt as a rich country and attracted him with its complex and skillful administrative organization. He was also delayed by his relationship with Cleopatra, the sister and wife of young Ptolemy, the son of Ptolemy Auletes. Caesar's first act was to install Cleopatra, driven away by her husband, into the palace. In general, he ruled in Alexandria as a sovereign master, as a monarch. This, due to the weakness of Caesar’s army, raised the entire population in Alexandria; At the same time, the Egyptian army approached Alexandria from Pelusium, proclaiming Arsinoe queen. Caesar was locked in the palace. An attempt to find a way out to sea by capturing the lighthouse failed, and also to appease the rebels by sending Ptolemy away. Caesar was rescued by the arrival of reinforcements from Asia. In the battle near the Nile, the Egyptian army was defeated, and Caesar became the master of the country (March 27, 47).

Late in the spring, Caesar left Egypt, leaving Cleopatra as queen and her husband the younger Ptolemy (the elder was killed in the Battle of the Nile). Caesar spent 9 months in Egypt; Alexandria - the last Hellenistic capital - and the court of Cleopatra gave him many impressions and a lot of experience. Despite urgent matters in Asia Minor and the West, Caesar went from Egypt to Syria, where, as the successor of the Seleucids, he restored their palace in Daphne and generally behaved like a master and monarch.

In July, he left Syria, quickly dealt with the rebel Pontic king Pharnaces and hurried to Rome, where his presence was urgently needed. After the death of Pompey, his party and the party of the Senate were far from broken. There were quite a few Pompeians, as they were called, in Italy; They were more dangerous in the provinces, especially in Illyricum, Spain and Africa. Caesar's legates managed with difficulty to subjugate Illyricum, where M. Octavius ​​led resistance for a long time, not without success. In Spain, the mood of the army was clearly Pompeian; All the prominent members of the Senate party gathered in Africa, with a strong army. There were Metellus Scipio, the commander-in-chief, and the sons of Pompey, Gnaeus and Sextus, and Cato, and T. Labienus, and others. They were supported by the Moorish king Juba. In Italy, the former supporter and agent of Yu. Caesar, Caelius Rufus, became the head of the Pompeians. In alliance with Milo, he started a revolution on economic grounds; using his magistracy (praetour), he announced a deferment of all debts for 6 years; when the consul removed him from the magistracy, he raised the banner of rebellion in the south and died in the fight against government troops.

In 47 Rome was without magistrates; M. Antony ruled it as magister equitum of the dictator Julius Caesar; the troubles arose thanks to the tribunes L. Trebellius and Cornelius Dolabella on the same economic basis, but without the Pompeian lining. It was not the tribunes that were dangerous, however, but Caesar’s army, which was to be sent to Africa to fight the Pompeians. The long absence of Yu. Caesar weakened discipline; the army refused to obey. In September 47, Caesar reappeared in Rome. With difficulty he managed to calm the soldiers who were already moving towards Rome. Having quickly completed the most necessary matters, in the winter of the same year Caesar crossed over to Africa. The details of this expedition of his are poorly known; a special monograph on this war by one of his officers suffers from ambiguities and bias. And here, as in Greece, the advantage was initially not on his side. After a long sitting on the seashore awaiting reinforcements and a tedious march inland, Caesar finally succeeds in forcing the battle of Tatzsus, in which the Pompeians were completely defeated (April 6, 46). Most of the prominent Pompeians died in Africa; the rest escaped to Spain, where the army took their side. At the same time, fermentation began in Syria, where Caecilius Bassus had significant success, seizing almost the entire province into his own hands.

On July 28, 46, Caesar returned from Africa to Rome, but stayed there only for a few months. Already in December he was in Spain, where he was met by a large enemy force led by Pompey, Labienus, Atius Varus and others. The decisive battle, after a tiring campaign, was fought near Munda (March 17, 45). The battle almost ended in Caesar's defeat; his life, as recently in Alexandria, was in danger. With terrible efforts, victory was snatched from the enemies, and the Pompeian army was largely cut off. Of the party leaders, only Sextus Pompey remained alive. Upon returning to Rome, Caesar, along with the reorganization of the state, prepared for a campaign in the East, but on March 15, 44 he died at the hands of the conspirators. The reasons for this can only be clarified after analyzing the reform of the political system that was started and carried out by Caesar in the short periods of his peaceful activity.

The power of Yu. Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar

Over the long period of his political activity, Yuri Caesar clearly understood that one of the main evils causing a serious illness of the Roman political system is the instability, impotence and purely urban nature of the executive power, the selfish and narrow party and class nature of the power of the Senate. From the early moments of his career, he openly and definitely struggled with both. And in the era of the conspiracy of Catiline, and in the era of extraordinary powers of Pompey, and in the era of the triumvirate, Caesar consciously pursued the idea of ​​​​centralization of power and the need to destroy the prestige and importance of the Senate.

Individuality, as far as one can judge, did not seem necessary to him. The agrarian commission, the triumvirate, then the duumvirate with Pompey, to which Yu. Caesar clung so tenaciously, show that he was not against collegiality or the division of power. It is impossible to think that all these forms were for him only a political necessity. With the death of Pompey, Caesar effectively remained the sole leader of the state; the power of the Senate was broken and power was concentrated in one hand, as it once was in the hands of Sulla. In order to carry out all the plans that Caesar had in mind, his power had to be as strong as possible, as unconstrained as possible, as complete as possible, but at the same time, at least at first, it should not formally go beyond the framework of the constitution. The most natural thing - since the constitution did not know a ready-made form of monarchical power and treated royal power with horror and disgust - was to combine in one person powers of an ordinary and extraordinary nature around one center. The consulate, weakened by the entire evolution of Rome, could not be such a center: a magistracy was needed, not subject to intercession and veto of the tribunes, combining military and civil functions, not limited by collegiality. The only magistracy of this kind was the dictatorship. Its inconvenience compared to the form invented by Pompey - the combination of a sole consulate with a proconsulate - was that it was too vague and, while giving everything in general, did not give anything in particular. Its extraordinaryness and urgency could be eliminated, as Sulla did, by pointing to its permanence (dictator perpetuus), while the uncertainty of powers - which Sulla did not take into account, since he saw in the dictatorship only a temporary means for carrying out his reforms - was eliminated only through the above connection . Dictatorship, as a basis, and next to this a series of special powers - this, therefore, is the framework within which Yu. Caesar wanted to place and placed his power. Within these limits, his power developed as follows.

In 49 - the year of the beginning of the civil war - during his stay in Spain, the people, at the suggestion of the praetor Lepidus, elected him dictator. Returning to Rome, Yu. Caesar passed several laws, assembled a comitia, at which he was elected consul for the second time (for the year 48), and abandoned dictatorship. The next year 48 (October-November) he received dictatorship for the 2nd time, in 47. In the same year, after the victory over Pompey, during his absence he received a number of powers: in addition to the dictatorship - a consulate for 5 years (from 47) and tribunic power, that is, the right to sit together with the tribunes and carry out investigations with them - in addition, the right to name the people their candidate for magistracy, with the exception of the plebeians, the right to distribute provinces without drawing lots to former praetors [Provinces to former consuls are still distributed by the Senate.] and the right to declare war and make peace. Caesar's representative this year in Rome is his magister equitum - assistant to the dictator M. Antony, in whose hands, despite the existence of consuls, all power is concentrated.

In 46, Caesar was both dictator (from the end of April) for the third time and consul; Lepidus was the second consul and magister equitum. This year, after the African war, his powers are significantly expanded. He was elected dictator for 10 years and at the same time the leader of morals (praefectus morum), with unlimited powers. Moreover, he receives the right to be the first to vote in the Senate and occupy a special seat in it, between the seats of both consuls. At the same time, his right to recommend candidates for magistrates to the people was confirmed, which was tantamount to the right to appoint them.

In 45 he was dictator for the 4th time and at the same time consul; his assistant was the same Lepidus. After the Spanish War (January 44), he was elected dictator for life and consul for 10 years. He refused the latter, as, probably, the 5-year consulate of the previous year [In 45 he was elected consul at the suggestion of Lepidus.]. The immunity of the tribunes is added to the tribunician power; the right to appoint magistrates and pro-magistrates is extended by the right to appoint consuls, distribute provinces among proconsuls and appoint plebeian magistrates. In the same year, Caesar was given exclusive authority to dispose of the army and money of the state. Finally, in the same year 44, he was granted lifelong censorship and all his orders were approved in advance by the Senate and the people.

In this way, Caesar became a sovereign monarch, remaining within the limits of constitutional forms [For many of the extraordinary powers there were precedents in the past life of Rome: Sulla was already a dictator, Marius repeated the consulate, he ruled in the provinces through his agents Pompey, and more than once; Pompey was given by the people unlimited control over the funds of the state.] All aspects of the life of the state were concentrated in his hands. He disposed of the army and provinces through his agents - pro-magistrates appointed by him, who were made magistrates only on his recommendation. The movable and immovable property of the community was in his hands as a lifelong censor and by virtue of special powers. The Senate was finally removed from financial management. The activity of the tribunes was paralyzed by his participation in the meetings of their collegium and the tribunician power and tribunician sacrosanctitas granted to him. And yet he was not a colleague of the tribunes; having their power, he did not have their name. Since he recommended them to the people, he was the highest authority in relation to them. He disposes of the Senate arbitrarily both as its chairman (for which he mainly needed the consulate), and as the first to answer the question of the presiding officer: since the opinion of the almighty dictator was known, it is unlikely that any of the senators would dare to contradict him .

Finally, the spiritual life of Rome was in his hands, since already at the beginning of his career he was elected great pontiff and now the power of the censor and the leadership of morals were added to this. Caesar did not have special powers that would give him judicial power, but the consulate, the censorship, and the pontificate had judicial functions. Moreover, we also hear about constant court negotiations at Caesar’s home, mainly on issues of a political nature. Caesar sought to give the newly created power a new name: this was the honorary cry with which the army greeted the winner - imperator. Yu. Caesar put this name at the head of his name and title, replacing his personal name Guy with it. With this he gave expression not only to the breadth of his power, his imperium, but also to the fact that from now on he leaves the ranks of ordinary people, replacing his name with a designation of his power and at the same time eliminating from it the indication of belonging to one family: the head of state cannot be called like any other Roman S. Iulius Caesar - he is Imp (erator) Caesar p(ater) p(atriae) dict(ator) perp (etuus), as his title says in the inscriptions and on coins.

On the power of Yu. Caesar and especially on his dictatorships, see Zumpt, “Studia Romana,” 199 et seq.; Mommsen, Corp. inscr. latinarum", I, 36 et seq.; Gunter, "Zeitschrift fur Numismatik", 1895, 192 et seq.; Groebe, in the new edition of Drumann "Geschichte Roms" (I, 404 et seq.); Wed Herzog, "Geschichte und System". (II, 1 et seq.).

Foreign policy

The guiding idea of ​​Caesar's foreign policy was the creation of a strong and integral state, with natural borders, if possible. Caesar pursued this idea in the north, south, and east. His wars in Gaul, Germany and Britain were caused by the need he realized to push the border of Rome to the ocean on one side, to the Rhine, at least on the other. His plan for a campaign against the Getae and Dacians proves that the Danube border lay within the limits of his plans. Within the border that united Greece and Italy by land, Greco-Roman culture was to reign; the countries between the Danube and Italy and Greece were supposed to be the same buffer against the peoples of the north and east as the Gauls were against the Germans. Caesar's policy in the East is closely related to this. Death overtook him on the eve of the campaign to Parthia. His eastern policy, including the actual annexation of Egypt to the Roman state, was aimed at rounding out the Roman Empire in the East. The only serious opponent of Rome here were the Parthians; their affair with Crassus showed that they had a broad expansive policy in mind. The revival of the Persian kingdom ran counter to the objectives of Rome, the successor to the monarchy of Alexander, and threatened to undermine the economic well-being of the state, which rested entirely on the factory, money-laden East. A decisive victory over the Parthians would have made Caesar, in the eyes of the East, the direct successor of Alexander the Great, the legitimate monarch. Finally, in Africa, Yu. Caesar continued a purely colonial policy. Africa had no political significance; Its economic importance, as a country capable of producing huge quantities of natural products, depended largely on regular administration, stopping the raids of nomadic tribes and re-establishing the best harbor in northern Africa, the natural center of the province and the central point for exchange with Italy - Carthage. The division of the country into two provinces satisfied the first two requests, the final restoration of Carthage satisfied the third.

Reforms of Yu. Caesar

In all of Caesar's reform activities, two main ideas are clearly noted. One is the need to unite the Roman state into one whole, the need to smooth out the difference between the citizen-master and the provincial-slave, to smooth out the differences between nationalities; the other, closely related to the first, is the streamlining of administration, close communication between the state and its subjects, the elimination of intermediaries, and a strong central government. Both of these ideas are reflected in all of Caesar’s reforms, despite the fact that he carried them out quickly and hastily, trying to use the short periods of his stay in Rome. Because of this, the sequence of individual measures is random; Caesar each time took on what seemed most necessary to him, and only a comparison of everything he did, regardless of chronology, makes it possible to grasp the essence of his reforms and notice a harmonious system in their implementation.

Caesar's unifying tendencies were reflected primarily in his policy towards parties among the ruling classes. His policy of mercy towards his opponents, with the exception of irreconcilable ones, his desire to attract everyone to public life, without distinction of party or mood, his admission of his former opponents among his close associates, undoubtedly testifies to the desire to merge all differences of opinion about his personality and his regime . This unifying policy explains the widespread trust in everyone, which was the reason for his death.

The unifying tendency also has a clear effect in relation to Italy. One of Caesar's laws concerning the regulation of certain parts of municipal life in Italy has reached us. True, it is now impossible to assert that this law was the general municipal law of Yu. Caesar (lex Iulia municipalis), but it is still certain that it immediately supplemented the statutes of individual Italian communities for all municipalities and served as a corrective for all of them. On the other hand, the combination in the law of norms regulating the urban life of Rome and municipal norms, and the significant likelihood that the norms of urban improvement of Rome were mandatory for municipalities, clearly indicates a tendency to reduce Rome to municipalities, to elevate municipalities to Rome, which from now on should was only the first of the Italian cities, the seat of central power and a model for all similar centers of life. A general municipal law for all of Italy with local differences was unthinkable, but some general norms were desirable and useful and clearly indicated that in the end Italy and its cities represented one whole united with Rome.

Assassination of Julius Caesar

Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. e. , on the way to a Senate meeting. When friends once advised the dictator to beware of enemies and surround himself with guards, Caesar replied: “It is better to die once than to constantly expect death.” One of the conspirators was Brutus, one of his close friends. Seeing him among the conspirators, Caesar cried out: “And you, my child? " and stopped resisting. Caesar had a stylus in his hands - a writing stick, and he somehow resisted - in particular, after the first blow, he pierced the hand of one of the attackers with it. When Caesar saw that resistance was useless, he covered himself from head to toe with a toga in order to fall more gracefully. Most of the wounds inflicted on him were not deep, although many were inflicted: 23 puncture wounds were found on the body; The frightened conspirators themselves injured each other, trying to reach Caesar. There are two different versions of his death: that he died from a fatal blow (the more common version; as Suetonius writes, it was a second blow to the chest) and that death was due to blood loss.

As a rule, they are called “Caesar” (51 times), Augustus is called “Augustus” 16 times, Tiberius - not once. “Emperator” in relation to the ruler appears only 3 times (in total in the text - 10 times), and the title “princeps” - 11 times. In Tacitus's text, the word "princeps" occurs 315 times, "imperator" 107 times, and "Caesar" 223 times in relation to the princeps and 58 times in relation to members of the ruling house. Suetonius uses "princeps" 48 times, "imperator" 29 times, and "Caesar" 52 times. Finally, in the text of Aurelius Victor and “Epitomes of the Caesars” the word “princeps” appears 48 times, “imperator” - 29, “Caesar” - 42, and “Augustus” - 15 times. During this period, the titles “August” and “Caesar” were practically identical to each other. The last emperor called Caesar as a relative of Julius Caesar and Augustus was Nero.

The term in the III-IV centuries AD. e.

It was during this period that the last Caesars of the 4th century were appointed. Constantius gave this title to two of his cousins ​​- Gallus and Julian - the only surviving relatives of Constantine the Great (not counting his sons). It is also known that the usurper Magnentius, having started a war with Constantius, appointed his brothers as Caesars. He sent one, Decentius, to Gaul. The sources say practically nothing about the second (Desideria).

The powers and activities of the Caesars using examples from the mid-4th century

Reasons for appointing Caesars

In all cases - Galla, Juliana and Decentius - the appointment was dictated by the need to protect against external threats. Thus, Constantius, being the ruler of the East, waged constant, although unsuccessful, wars with the Sassanids, and, going to war with Magnentius, made Gallus Caesar and immediately sent him to Antioch-on-Orontes to organize defense. His opponent did the same: to protect Gaul from the Alamanni, he sent his brother Decentius there. He, however, could not pacify them, and Constantius, who soon after his victory went back to the East (Gall had already been executed by that time), left Julian in Gaul, giving him the title of Caesar.

All three appointments were made in conditions of external danger and when the senior ruler was unable to be in the region and command troops. Another interesting fact is that the appointments were made not on an imperial scale, but for specific territories - for Gaul and for the East. The origins of such vesting of power within any part of the empire should obviously be sought in the third century. Before that, emperors, sharing power with someone, shared their imperium, acting as republican consuls, who had equal power, extending over the entire territory of the state (for example, Vespasian and Titus, Nerva and Trajan, etc.). During the crisis of the 3rd century, virtually independent states were formed within the empire, demonstrating their viability: the “British Empire” of Carausius and Allectus, the “Gallic Empire” of Postumus and Tetricus, the Palmyran kingdom of Odaenathus and Zenobia. And already Diocletian, sharing power with Maximian, divided it precisely territorially, taking the East for himself, and giving the West to his co-ruler. Subsequently, all divisions of power took place precisely on the territorial principle.

The Caesars - both Gall and Julian (we have too little information about Decentius) - were very limited in their capabilities, both in the military and civilian spheres.

Activities of the Caesars in the military sphere

Although the main function of the Caesars was to protect the provinces, they still did not have complete control over the army entrusted to them. This is primarily visible in their relationships with senior officers. Julian, for example, who immediately after his appointment had to conduct active military operations, faced, if not direct disobedience from the army elite, then at least hidden opposition. Thus, the cavalry master Marcellus, “who was nearby, did not provide assistance to Caesar, who was in danger, although he was obliged in the event of an attack on the city, even if Caesar were not there, to rush to the rescue,” and the infantry master Barbation constantly intrigued against Julian. A similar situation arose due to the fact that all these officers depended not on Caesar, but on Augustus, and Caesar could not remove them from their positions - Marcellus was nevertheless dismissed for his inaction, but not by Julian, but by Constantius. The power of the Caesars over the legions under them was also relative; they could give orders during military operations, exercising either general or direct command of the troops, but in principle all legions were subordinate to Augustus. It was he, as the owner of full supreme power, who decided where this or that legion should be located and which units should be placed under the command of Caesar. As is known, it was Constantius’ order to transfer part of the Gallic legions to the East that caused a soldier’s revolt, which resulted in the proclamation of Julian as Augustus.

The Caesars were also very limited in financial matters, which primarily influenced their relations with the army. Ammianus directly writes that “when Julian was sent to the western regions with the rank of Caesar, and they wanted to infringe on him in every possible way and did not provide any opportunity to give handouts to the soldiers, and thus the soldiers could rather go to any rebellion, that same committee of the state treasury Ursul gave a written an order to the head of the Gallic treasury to issue without the slightest hesitation the sums whatever Caesar demands.” This partly alleviated the problem, but August’s strict financial control remained. Constantius even personally determined the expenses for Julian’s table!

Activities of the Caesars in the civil sphere

The Caesars also had limited power in the civil sphere. All senior civil officials in the territories entrusted to them were appointed by Augustus and also reported to him. Such independence led to constant tense relations with the Caesars, who were often forced to almost beg officials to do this or that action. Thus, both Gall and Julian were constantly in more or less confrontation with the praetorian prefects. The prefect of the East, Thalassius, constantly intrigued against Gallus, sending reports to Constantius, and the prefect of Gaul, Florence, allowed himself to argue quite passionately with Julian on the issue of emergency penalties. However, the final word still remained with Caesar, and he did not sign the decree, which Florence did not fail to immediately report to August. After all, the prefect was in charge of the direct administration of the provinces, and when Julian begged (sic!) him to put Second Belgica under his control, this was a very unusual precedent.

One of the most important functions of the Caesars was judicial. And if Gall, while holding court, “exceeded the powers granted to him” and very thoughtlessly terrorized the nobility in the East (for which, ultimately, he paid), then Julian approached his judicial duties very carefully, trying to avoid abuse.

Caesarate as a state institution

As you can see, the power of the Caesars was very limited - both territorially and functionally; both in the military and civilian spheres. Nevertheless, the Caesars were emperors and formally were accomplices of the supreme power. Belonging to the imperial college was also emphasized by the corresponding marriages: Constantius married both Gall and Julian to his sisters - the first was given Constantine, the second - Helen. Although the Caesars were comparable in scope of power to major officials, in the eyes of society they stood much higher. Ammianus describes Julian's arrival at Vienna:

...people of all ages and statuses rushed to meet him to greet him as a desirable and brave ruler. All the people and the entire population of the surrounding areas, seeing him from afar, turned to him, calling him a merciful and happiness-bringing emperor, and everyone looked with delight at the arrival of the legitimate sovereign: in his arrival they saw the healing of all ills.

The institution of caesarate ensured work and a certain stability of government in the middle of the 4th century. With the proclamation of Julian as Augustus, this institution ceased to exist in this form, reviving only later, largely modified.

see also

Notes

Literature

• Egorov A. B. Problems of the title of the Roman emperors. // VDI. - 1988. - No. 2.
• Antonov O. V. On the problem of the originality of public administration of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. // Power, politics, ideology in the history of Europe: collection. scientific articles dedicated to 30th anniversary of the VIMO department of Altai State University. - Barnaul, 2005. - pp. 26-36.
• Koptev A.V. PRINCEPS ET DOMINUS: on the question of the evolution of the principate at the beginning of the late antique era. // Ancient law. - 1996. - No. 1. - P. 182-190.
• Jones A.H.M. The Later Roman Empire 284-602: A social economic and administrative survey. - Oxford, 1964. - Vol. 1.
• Pabst A. Divisio Regni: Der Zerfall des Imperium Romanum in der Sicht der Zeitgenossen. - Bonn, 1986.

Master's degrees, positions and titles in Ancient Rome
Republic	Ordinary Cursus honorum: Tribune → Quaestor → Aedile → Praetor, propraetor → Consul, consul-suffect, proconsul (List of consuls of the period of the Republic) → Censor Extraordinary Dictator and chief of cavalry (List of dictators and chiefs of cavalry) · Interrex · Military tribune with consular power · Decemvirs · Triumvir Religious Pontifex Maximus · College of Pontiffs · Sacred King · Augur · Augustal · Arval brothers · Vestal Virgin · Haruspex · Salii · Fecial · Flamin Military Military tribune · Primipil · Centurion Other Princeps of the Senate · Tribune of the Plebeians · Lictor · Legate
Early Empire	Emperor (List of Emperors) · Consul (List of consuls during the Empire) · Praetor · Praetorian Prefect · Prefect of the city · Prefect of Egypt (List of prefects of Roman Egypt) · Prefect of Annona · Prefect of the Vigils · Legate · Military tribune · Procurator · see also: Imperial Council · Princeps
Late Empire	Supreme power Dominus · August · Caesar · see also:

It is difficult to argue with the fact that most people are well aware of such a historical figure as Julius Caesar. The name of this outstanding commander is mentioned in the name of the salad and the summer month, and has also been repeatedly played out in cinema. So what did people remember about this hero, and who he really was? The story of Julius Caesar will be told to the reader further.

Origin

Who is Caesar? Where did he come from? The story contains several versions, but the most common is the following. The future military leader, politician and talented writer was from an ancient patrician family. Members of his family once played a significant role in the life of the capital of the Roman Empire. As is the case with any other ancient family, there is a mythological version of origin. According to the representatives of the clan themselves, their family tree came from Venus itself. A version of a similar origin was already widespread by 200 BC. e, and Cato the Elder suggested that the bearer of the name Yul got it from the Greek ἴουλος (stubble, facial hair).

Many historians are of the opinion that the Caesar family line most likely descends from the Julius Iuli, but confirmation of this has not yet been found. The first Caesar mentioned in history was the praetor of 208 BC. e., about which Titus Livius wrote in his writings.

Date of Birth

Who is Caesar, and what is known about him? Intense debate regarding the true date of birth of the ruler continues to this day. The reason for this is different evidence from sources that does not allow us to know the exact date.

Indirect information from most ancient writers suggests that the commander was born in 100 BC. e., but according to the mentions of Eutropius, at the time of the battle of Munda (March 17, forty-fifth year BC) Julia was over fifty-six years old. There are also two important sources of the commander’s life chronicle, where no information about his birth has been preserved at all, much less an exact date.

At the same time, there is no consensus regarding the date; three versions are often put forward: March 17, July 12 or 13.

Childhood

To understand who Caesar is, you need to look back to his childhood. Julius happened to grow up in the most prosperous area of ​​the capital, which naturally influenced him. He studied at home, mastering the Greek language, literature, art, and rhetoric. Knowledge of Greek significantly helped him in obtaining further education, because most of the works and documents were written in this language. He was taught by the rhetorician Gniphon himself, who was once trained by Cicero.

Studying the biography of Julius Caesar, we can assume that in the eighty-fifth year BC he had to become the head of the family due to the unexpected death of his parent, because all his immediate male relatives had died.

Personal life and family

According to official information, the ancient Roman commander was married three times. But there is evidence that before all these marriages he became engaged to Cossutia, to whom he became engaged after the death of his father.

His spouses were:

• Cornelia is the consul's daughter;
• Pompeia is the daughter of the ruler Sulla;
• Calpuria is a wealthy plebeian.

From his first wife, Caesar had a daughter, whom he later married to one of his henchmen, Gnaeus Pompey.

If we already remember his relationship with Cleopatra, then they are in no way confirmed. They probably took place during the dictator's stay in Egypt. After visiting Caesar, Cleopatra gave birth to a boy, nicknamed Caesarion by the people. True, Guy did not even think of recognizing him as his son, and he was not included in the will.

The beginning of the way

The biography of Julius Caesar indicates that, having reached adulthood, he went to serve. But not far from Miletus, his ship was attacked by pirates. The dressed-up young man immediately attracted the attention of sea bandits, and they demanded a ransom of 20 pieces of silver for him. Naturally, this outraged the future dictator, and he offered 50 for his person, sending a servant to take money from the family treasury. Thus, he stayed with the sea wolves for two months. Caesar behaved quite defiantly with them: he did not allow the bandits to sit in his presence, he threatened them and called them names in every possible way. Having taken the required funds, the pirates released the insolent man, but Julius was not going to leave this, and having equipped a small fleet, he set out to take revenge on the kidnappers, which he successfully managed to accomplish.

Military service

Julius Caesar soon left Rome. He managed to serve in Asia Minor, living in Bithynia, Cilicia, and took part in the siege of Mytilene. The death of his wife forced him to return to his homeland, and after which he soon began speaking in court. But he did not linger in his hometown and sailed to the island of Rhodes, trying to improve his oratory skills there.

Upon his return, Guy took the place of priest-pontiff and military tribunal, simultaneously entering into a marriage with Gnaeus’ sister, Pompeia, who in the future would become his faithful ally. In 66 BC. e. Caesar took the post of aedile and began to improve Rome, organize holidays, distribute bread, and gladiatorial fights, which, naturally, contributed to gaining popularity.

In 52 BC. e. he took the post of praetor and for two years acted as governor of a small province. Staying in this position made it possible to show that Julius has outstanding administrative abilities, has a strategic mind and is well versed in military affairs.

First triumvirate

Naturally, after successfully ruling Farther Spain, such a talented figure expected a real triumph in Rome. But Caesar decided to neglect these honors due to his career advancement. At that moment, his age was close to the point where he had the opportunity to be elected to the Senate; he only needed to register himself. During the time of Julius Caesar, the position of consul was considered honorable, and Guy was not going to miss this chance.

In the course of lengthy political operations, Caesar managed to acquire two close associates, as a result of which the first triumvirate was created, meaning “the union of three husbands.” The exact year of its formation remains unknown, because everything was done secretly. But if you believe the sources, this happened in 59 or 60 BC. e. Julius, Pompey and Crassus became members of the triumvirate; it was thanks to these people that the man managed to take the place of consul.

Participation in the Gallic War

At the end of his consular powers, he became proconsul of Gaul, where he conquered many new territories for his state. It was in the confrontation with the Gauls that his qualities as a strategist and his ability to correctly beat the inability of the Gallic leaders to come to unity for a common goal were revealed. Having defeated the Germans in a confrontation in the vastness of modern Alsace, Julius was able not only to prevent an invasion, but also subsequently made an attempt to go to the Rhine, crossing the army using the bridge he had built.

At the same time, he tried to conquer Britain, where he was able to gain several important victories, but realizing the fragility of his own position, he decided to withdraw his troops from the island.

In 56, at a meeting in Luqa, members of the triumvirate entered into a new alliance on joint political activity. But Caesar did not have to stay in Rome for long, because a new conflict was brewing in Gaul. Despite their significant superiority in numbers, the Gauls were easily defeated, and a significant part of their settlements were captured and devastated.

Civil War

Since the death of Crassus in 53 BC. e. the union was dissolved. Pompey began to actively compete with Guy and began to gather around him followers of the inveterate republican system of government. The Senate had serious concerns about Caesar's intentions, which is why he was refused to extend his governorship over the lands of the Gauls. Realizing his power and popularity among military leaders and in the capital itself, Guy decides to carry out a coup. January 12, 49 BC e. he gathered the soldiers of the 13th Legion near him and gave them a fiery speech. As a result, Emperor Julius Caesar makes a significant passage across the Rubicon River.

Caesar quickly manages to capture several important strategic points without encountering any resistance. Serious panic broke out in the capital, Pompey was in complete confusion and left Rome together with the Senate. Thus, Julius has the opportunity to take control of the country and wage a campaign against his rival in his province - Spain. But Pompey was not ready to accept defeat so easily and, having concluded an alliance with Mettelus Scipio, gathered a worthy army. But this did not stop Caesar from crushing him at Pharsalus. Pompey had to flee to Egypt, but Caesar caught up with him and at the same time helped Cleopatra to subjugate Alexandria, thereby enlisting the support of a powerful ally.

The Pompeians, led by Cato and Scipio, were not going to surrender to the new ruler and gathered forces in North Africa. But they suffered a crushing defeat, and Numidia was annexed to Rome. After the campaign against Syria and Cilicia, Caesar was able to return home; it was from this period that his memorable phrase “came, saw, conquered” is known.

Dictatorship

Having completed the grueling wars, Julius Caesar celebrated his victory by organizing luxurious feasts, gladiatorial games and treats for the entire people, rewarding his followers with all kinds of honors. Thus begins his dictatorship for a period of 10 years, and in the future he finds himself titled as Emperor and Father of Rome. He establishes new civil laws on the system of government, reducing food distributions, and introduces calendar reform, calling the calendar after himself.

From the moment of the victory at Munda, the dictator began to receive exorbitant honors: his statues were created and temples were built, linking his family tree with the inhabitants of heaven, and a list of his accomplishments was written in gold on columns and tablets. From that moment on, he personally began to remove powerful representatives of the Senate and appoint his associates. In subsequent years, he received dictatorial powers several times, but the dictatorship was a minor part of his power, since he was also consul and held many additional titles.

Conspiracy and tragic end

Now it becomes clear who Caesar is, whose life path was cut short rather tragically. In 44 BC. e. A serious conspiracy was brewing against his sole rule. Those dissatisfied with his power feared that he could eliminate them at any moment. One of these groups was led by Marcus Junius Brutus.

And so, at the next Senate meeting, the insidious traitors were able to carry out their plan, and Caesar was stabbed 23 times, which was the cause of death. Julius was succeeded by his nephew Octavian, who headed the Senate and would receive a good part of the great dictator's inheritance. Julius sought to pursue a policy of sacralization of his own person and family, which is why in the present time his personality is known to virtually everyone.