Carpentry is used. Carpentry templates: tips for a novice carpenter, instructions, manuals

Carpentry works are whitewood and cabinetry. The starting material for white wood works is coniferous and soft hardwood (birch, linden, poplar), for cabinetry - hardwood of valuable hardwood. For both types of work, tree species with a relatively straight trunk and a small number of healthy knots are used.

Influence of wood properties on the choice of material. To choose the right wood, you need to know the properties of tree species.

Coniferous species are used as a basis for veneering details with veneer of solid valuable species; hard hardwoods (oak, beech, common and Karelian birch, walnut, hornbeam, common maple and bird's eye, ash, etc.) are used in their natural, whole form. In mosaic works, veneer of deciduous and coniferous species is used. For wood carving with subsequent etching and dyeing of wood in a dark color, only some hardwoods are chosen - linden, aspen, willow, mountain ash, birch. If they want to leave the natural color of the details of the carved product, then for its manufacture they take a pear, maple, walnut, chestnut, oak, etc.

Conifers mainly have soft wood, so they are rarely used for facial details in products. This is due to the fact that soft wood is sensitive to mechanical damage and shock. Practice shows that, subject to the requirements for the technological process, conifers can be successfully used for the manufacture of furniture.

Products of small size are made mainly from coniferous wood without knots, with beautiful, pronounced annual layers (cypress, juniper, larch, red pine, etc.). Spruce with a large number of knots, as well as white pine and fir are species that require additional decorative finishing with toning or ornamental carving. Coniferous wood is easily stained, but with intense coloring, the color tone drowns out its decorative qualities.

When dried, the wood shrinks in volume and undergoes natural warping.

In carpentry, it is necessary to correctly determine the drying time of wood, since both under-dried and over-dried material are equally unsuitable for work. Under operating conditions with normal humidity, overdried wood will inevitably absorb moisture from the air and warp. Variable temperature changes also adversely affect the normal state of wood: the material cracks.

The state of wood, its drying and swelling is affected by a number of reasons: harvesting time, duration, exposure conditions, etc. In a tree harvested in winter, wood (compared to summer harvesting) is less wet, since during this period it slows down its growth . It must be remembered that underdrying and overdrying have the strongest effect on hard and dense rocks and weaker on soft and loose ones. For the product, it is necessary to select wood of species that are homogeneous in structure so that the degree of drying of the blanks is the same.

Rice. 2. Drying of the parts of a sawn tree trunk (warping): 1 - sapwood area; 2 - sound wood

When sawing material dries, deflections and bulges are observed (Fig. 2), i.e., it warps. Warping will be barely noticeable at the center board, since hard heartwood dries out much less than sapwood. To some extent, the suitability of joinery material can be determined by the external signs of a fallen tree trunk. When selecting wood, attention is paid to radial cracks in the butt: their absence or the presence of small cracks indicates the good quality of the material; deep cracks are a sign of its poor quality. With deep radial cracks in the trunk, there may be cavities, which, for example, in pine, are filled with a resinous substance - resin (this defect in pine is called pitching). If the cracks go along the annual layers of wood, i.e., in arcs, then such a tree is unsuitable for carpentry.

When choosing soft coniferous wood, pay attention to the density of annual layers. The thicker they are and their transitions are smoother, the wood is denser and more uniform, and therefore better. The wide-layered wood indicates its friability and insignificant strength; products from such wood should not be subjected to sharp and variable loads. The parallelism of the annual layers indicates the relative straightness of the wood in the longitudinal section, and, consequently, the good quality of the material.

In separately growing trees, after felling and sawing, one can observe non-parallelism of wood fibers, i.e., oblique layering. Along with the cross-layering of such trees, the sound part is shifted to the sapwood. Wood with these defects cracks more and warps more.

When selecting wood, attention should be paid to the age of the tree. Young wood is soft and loose, while old wood is more prone to rotting, so it is best to choose wood of a medium, mature growth period. So, for joinery work, pine wood at the age of 80-90, oak - 80-150, birch and ash - 60-70, spruce - 120, alder - 60 years, etc. is considered the best. The age of a felled tree is determined by its cross section , on which annual layers are clearly visible.

In carpentry, some wood species are considered more flexible, others less flexible (elastic). At the same time, autumn wood is more flexible than winter wood. It has been established that the flexibility of a tree is most pronounced in its middle age.

Flexible rock is easy to bend, but hard to break. You should know that in terms of flexibility, pine is inferior to linden, and alder to birch. Linden, birch, elm, aspen are the most flexible; followed by oak, beech, spruce, ash, maple; larch, alder, hornbeam, fir, pine are considered the least flexible. The flexibility of a tree largely depends on where it grows, the presence of various nutrients in the soil, the environment in which the tree grows (in the thick of the forest or in the open), the presence of knots, etc.

In carpentry, when bending wood, such a property as viscosity is very important. With high viscosity, the tree bends in all directions without breaking, but also without taking on the former straightness. Maple, elm, juniper, hazel, birch, ash, larch, beech, young oak, etc. have this quality; fragile species are alder, aspen, spruce, etc.

To a large extent, the viscosity and fragility of wood is influenced by the soil on which the tree grows. So, if pine and beech grew on wet soil, then their wood will have a high viscosity, and if on dry soil, then it will be medium. Oak has a high brittleness if it grows in a damp or too dry environment. Under production conditions, in order to obtain a uniform viscosity, certain species are pre-steamed before processing, saturating the wood with moisture, and then subjected to bending.

Wood tends to split in the direction of the fibers, and the more straight its structure, the easier it splits. Dense and flexible rocks split more easily than soft ones. The knotty, frizziness, flow and entanglement of wood fibers reduce the degree of splitting. It is easier to split oak, beech, ash, alder, spruce, etc., more difficult - pear, poplar, hornbeam, etc. For carving, breeds with a lower degree of splitting are selected.

Long-term storage of wood reduces its strength, so the carpenter must comply with the storage conditions of the material, and protect finished products from atmospheric influences by covering them with varnishes, mastics, etc.

When selecting material for carpentry work, carpenters pay attention to the color in the cut or flake of wood. If its color is uneven or too bright, then this indicates a fungal disease that has begun. Such a tree is unsuitable for carpentry work.

Knots in structural details are undesirable, as they reduce the strength of the wood. When the wood dries, they usually fall out. In conifers, the cavity of the fallen knot is filled with a resinous substance, and then a “tobacco” knot is observed. Material with a large number of knots is used for non-critical structures.

Rice. 3. Scheme for sawing a tree trunk: 1 - timber; 2 - edged board; 3 - unedged board; 4 - croaker

Lumber and wood processing products. Wood materials come in the form of sawn, shredded and glued wood, as well as veneer.

The sawing assortment used in carpentry is obtained as a result of sawing a tree trunk (Fig. 3). The range of lumber is determined by the presence of various wood defects and depends on the accuracy of its sawing, the cleanliness of processing and the degree of warping. When purchasing or harvesting material, they proceed from its size and the required volume. Material is always harvested a little more than necessary, given the hidden marriage of blanks.

The most common sizes of lumber for home work are as follows: boards - thickness 13–45, width 80–250 mm; bars - 50–100 and 80–200 mm, respectively; bars - section 130–250x130–250 mm. Lumber length - no more than 6.5 m.

For carpentry blanks, usually unedged boards are used, sawn closer to the center of the trunk. They are less prone to shrinkage and drying. For small products, boards that are generally defective are also used: with tapering, curvature, cracks, slight oblique layer, knotty.

Material for joinery is bought in stores. But we should not forget that for their manufacture, you can use old furniture, a container board, lumber waste, old parquet, elements of dismantled wooden buildings, beam ceilings, etc.

Wood processing products are sliced ​​and peeled veneer, plywood, chipboard and fibreboard.

Sliced ​​and peeled veneer is used as a material for facing and mosaic work. Veneer comes to stores from woodworking plants or furniture factories in bundles of various lengths and widths. It is obtained by planing or peeling wood: peeled - birch, alder, spruce, pine, beech, linden and other species with a weak texture, planed - walnut, ash, beech, etc. Sliced ​​veneer is used, as a rule, for facing furniture, and peeled - joinery and chipboard. For veneering at home, 0.6–1.5 mm thick veneer is recommended.

In addition to sliced ​​and peeled veneer, sawn veneer with a thickness of 1–12 mm is also used for facing products in carpentry. At home, such veneer is obtained by sawing wood with an ordinary one-handed saw with the appropriate tooth setting. Sawn veneer is used for facing small items.

Plywood consists of several (three, five or more) glued layers of peeled veneer. The main types of wood used for the manufacture of plywood are alder, birch, beech, pine, linden, etc. Plywood goes on sale sanded and unsanded, marked according to the adhesive compositions used. Plywood is used as a structural and facing material. It is pasted over with sliced ​​veneer of valuable species - oak, ash, birch, beech, walnut, mahogany, maple, etc. Instead of veneer, plywood can be lined with decorative films or decorative paper. Plywood thickness 3–18 mm.

Blockboards are laths glued together, lined with peeled veneer or plywood. To facilitate structures, slabs are also made in which the slats are placed in blocks with the formation of voids. Shields made in this way do not bend or crack. The thickness of the joinery boards is 16–50 mm. At home, the master can make a blockboard himself, using the appropriate materials and tools. Joiner's plates are used for the manufacture of furniture.

Chipboards (chipboards) are made from wood and its waste, which are crushed, dried, sorted, mixed with a binder, molded and pressed at a certain pressure and temperature. The thickness of the plates is 10–20 mm. Plates are waterproof and non-waterproof, of different densities, polished and unpolished. Chipboard is used mainly for the construction of partitions, sheathing of frame structures and the manufacture of individual pieces of furniture.

Fibreboard (MDF) is also made from crushed wood, which undergoes additional special processing. The thickness of fiberboard is 2.5–25 mm. Plates have different density, water resistance and degree of sound absorption. Fiberboard of increased hardness is used for facing furniture frames, panel structures of sliding doors, partitions, etc.

The use of bark. Mosaic works use the bark of some trees. The bark of birch (birch), pine at the age of 45–60 years, willow, young shoots of a rose bush, etc. is most widely used.

Birch bark is harvested in May-June, when the sap flow is especially strong. Better than others - bark from ordinary birch, especially from trees growing on moderately moist soils: it is clean, without black marks and strokes. Birch bark is peeled from a felled tree with a sharp spruce or rowan wedge along pre-made incisions. After separation from the tree, it is carefully wiped with a cloth; stored in packs under load in a cool shaded place. Before work, the birch bark is soaked in hot water, after which it becomes soft and pliable. Sometimes birch bark is thicker than sliced ​​veneer, and to make it thinner, several inner layers are removed. In the process of work, it is not recommended to press on the birch bark, because it thickens and darkens from this. Under the varnish, the birch bark also darkens a little.

Pine bark on top has a red-orange scaly structure, under which there is a green sublayer - young bark, easily removed from the trunk. It is not recommended to hit the bark, as blackening appears at the points of impact. After removing from the tree, the pine bark is dried until excess moisture disappears. It darkens a little when dry. After coating with varnish, the color of the bark becomes saturated. Pine bark is used mainly for inserts, where a natural, green color is needed, in floral ornaments, etc.

Useful remarks. To determine the moisture content of wood, an alcohol solution of iodine is applied with a brush to a fresh chipped flake from the workpiece. If the tree is harvested in winter (less damp), then the veins will acquire a dark purple hue, if in summer (more damp) - yellowish.

If, when struck with a hammer or an ax butt, a dull sound is produced on the end of the workpiece, the wood is raw, if it is sonorous, it is dry. However, it is difficult to determine the moisture content of a knotted blank in this way, since the presence of knots will enhance the “sound” of the wood.

The best way to determine the moisture content of wood is by the chips removed from the workpiece with a jointer. The wood will be damp if thin and long chips can be tied into a knot, and dry if the chips break.

The density of wood can be determined by the degree of saturation of its moisture. So, in order to select a high-quality oak board, samples of several boards of the same size are placed in water for several hours, after which they are weighed. The heaviest specimen will be of the lowest quality, since it has absorbed a lot of water, which means that its wood is less dense than the rest.

The juices that the tree feeds on during its growth contain many different salts. When the wood dries, they remain in the pores of the checkered structure of the tree, where, under certain conditions, moisture with air also enters. This contributes to the decay of the material of the blanks. To get rid of salts, workpieces with a load are lowered onto a clean river bottom with a butt against the current. After a certain time (usually 7-8 months), the water will wash out all the salts from the wood. After drying, the wood becomes very durable, almost does not warp or crack. It should be remembered that not every tree can be rid of salts in this way, since many species rot in a humid environment. Therefore, only those species that are hardy to stay in a humid environment are subject to leaching: oak, pine, alder, yew and some others.

solid wood itself is obtained from a sawn and peeled tree from branches and bark. The value of a particular wood depends on the type of tree, on the structure of the structure of its trunk.
Solid wood is used in carpentry in the form of different lengths of boards, beams, discs, beams, and various shaped elements.

You should first consider the very structure of wood in Figure 1.

1. Main sections of the trunk.

Here the main technological
cuts are:
- transverse (in Fig. 1 this is plane B),
- radial (plane B),
- tangential (plane A is a cut tangential to annual rings).

The most visual representation of the structural texture of wood gives a tangential cut. In the central part of the tree trunk
core 1 is located (the core is usually the loosest tissue).

2. Annual rings.

Annual rings diverge from the core in concentric circles around the circumference, forming sapwood; each ring represents a growth per year, which allows you to determine the age of the trunk.

Rice. 1

A - tangential cut;
B - radial cut;
B - cross section

1 - core;
2 - core;
3 - sapwood;
4 - bark;
5 - core rays;
b - annual rays

3. Species of trees.

Wood species are divided into those with a core and those without a core. They are also called sound and non-core.

Non-core species have only core 1 and sapwood 3. In terms of quality, sapwood is significantly inferior to the core, and therefore, for example, oak wood itself varies in quality. The value is the core of the oak (for cabinetry), and the sapwood of this valuable breed is not used at all in carpentry.

Class carpentryit is unthinkable without the ability to distinguish tree species from one another and recognize them in a workpiece or in a product. For white wood works, coniferous species are usually used - pine, spruce and deciduous - birch, linden, poplar. Coniferous species are also used as a basis for gluing parts with plywood made from precious woods. In solid wood products, hardwoods are used for a transparent finish. When woodcarving is performed, which will then be painted dark, hardwoods are used - aspen, linden, birch, mountain ash, willow. With the natural color of the carved details, it is best to take a pear, maple, walnut, chestnut.

Brief description of the main tree species and their application

1. Hardwood.

Hardwoods are of the greatest importance in carpentry, of which oak should be given priority in our territory.

Oak(hard wood) - used in furniture production, in construction (milled wood parts, parquet), car building, shipbuilding, hydraulic engineering construction, oak wood is durable, strong, hard, resistant to decay, has a beautiful texture, bends well.Oak has clearly visible pores in a tangential cut, and core rays in a radial cut; very durable, easily stained to black. Real bog oak, which has lain in the water, has a color from brown-green to black. In combination with the radial cut, the texture of this oak plank is very beautiful.

Beech(hard rock) - used in furniture production (parquet, veneer, carpentry tools, containers), in shoe production (blocks), mechanical engineering. Acetic acid and creosote are obtained from beech by dry distillation of wood. Beech wood is strong, but prone to decay, good
processed, impregnated, bends well. It shrinks heavily when it dries.

Beech in its pure form is not expressive. In the radial section of the beech, shiny plates appear, visible from the end as dark dashes. Such a cut gives beech wood the most decorative qualities. But on the other hand, beech has almost no equal in strength.

Elm has a dark core and clearly visible annual layers. In a radial section, they form an interesting ripple. By the nature of processing, hardness and other properties, elm is close to oak. The texture of the wood is especially beautiful in the butt.

Hornbeam(hard rock) - used in turning, in mechanical engineering, in textile production. From the hornbeam, carpentry tool cases are made. Hornbeam wood is distinguished by its hardness, heaviness, is difficult to process, and is very resistant to abrasion. Like beech, hornbeam wood warps heavily when it dries out.

Ash(strong and viscous breed) - is widely used in the manufacture of sports equipment, in furniture production, in the aircraft industry, in car building, shipbuilding, and in housing construction.

Ash resembles oak wood, it is somewhat lighter, it does not have core rays. When stained and painted, it acquires an unpleasant gray hair, so it is usually used in natural color.

Carpentry and carpentry tools are made from ash. The wood is strong and viscous, has a beautiful texture, durable, resistant to decay. Ash wood bends well, warps a little, but is poorly impregnated with antiseptics. Elm, elm, elm (dense, strong breed) - these breeds are widely used in furniture and plywood production because of their beautiful texture. Having great strength, they are used in mechanical engineering and car building. The wood of elm, elm, elm, is distinguished by its strength, viscosity, density. Good resistance to wear, good bending.

Nut(hard rock) - sphere of use - furniture and plywood production, housing construction (internal wooden finishing). Walnut wood is heavy, strong and hard with a beautiful texture. The wood is well processed and perfectly polished. Linden (soft rock) - pencils, toys, musical instruments, and other products are made from it. Linden is also widely used in furniture and plywood production. Linden wood is soft, light and easy to process. When dried, the linden shrinks significantly, but warps and cracks to a small extent.

Walnut and Manchurian have wood of red-brown color, sometimes with dark veins, are planed with difficulty, lend themselves well to polishing and staining. Walnut burls have a particularly beautiful pattern; burls are cut into boards, assembled on a coniferous basis into shields. The hornbeam has a white-yellow hard wood, very heavy, suitable for imitation of ebony. It mainly goes to the soles of carpentry tools. Handled well, polished poorly. The pear wood has a beautiful pink color with gentle lines of annual layers. The wood is dense, heavy, well polished and painted. Suitable for small-profile carvings, drawing tools. Little warps and cracks when dried. Due to the developed central trunk, the pear gives long, straight billets.

Birch(moderately hard rock) - widely used in the manufacture of skis, butts of guns, parquet, wood-laminated plastics, chipboard and fiberboard, cellulose. Housing construction, furniture and plywood production are also areas of application for birch. Where there is high humidity, birch wood is not used. Birch is uniform in density, moderately hard, well processed. The birch material is often imitated for valuable species, it is well polished, painted, and well amenable to impregnation. But birch is unstable to decay, warps, which narrows the scope of its application.

Maple(hard rock) - scope - mechanical engineering, plywood, music and furniture production. In shoemaking, blocks are made from maple, and blocks for planes are made in carpentry. Maple wood is characterized by strength, density and hardness, has a spectacular glossy surface. Good for painting and polishing. The shrinkage factor is negligible.

Russian maple, sycamore, black maple has dense gray-pink wood with a delicate pattern. The radial cut is especially beautiful. Maple easily polishes and accepts stains; it can imitate most rare trees with even grain wood. American maple, or ash maple, resembles ash in wood texture, but with smaller pores and denser wood, it is processed and polished with difficulty.

Aspen(softwood) - this type of wood has found wide application in the match industry, construction, and in the viscose industry for the production of artificial silk. Aspen, like poplar, is successfully used for various crafts, for making toys. Roof tiles are also made from aspen. The wood is soft, slightly knotted, light, well processed, well impregnated and glued. Of particular note is the strength of aspen in the aquatic environment, resistance to wood-biters. Aspen warps little and is resistant to cracking.

Poplar- used as a good ornamental material (dishes, troughs, spoons, toys, etc.), used in the production of cellulose, in construction. Poplar wood is soft, dries out rather strongly, bends poorly, and is prone to decay. The material of this breed has mossy. Alder (softwood) - the scope of alder is quite extensive - this is joinery and furniture production, plywood production, lumber production. Alder has proven itself well in underwater construction, in particular, log cabins for wells are built from it. Alder is used in the manufacture of souvenirs, it is a good material for artistic processing (woodcarving). Considering that the alder does not give a smell, it is irreplaceable in tare production.

Elm- southern wood with brown wood. Caps are often formed on the trunks of elm. Sawn boards from them are exceptionally beautiful. Plane tree, plane tree (eastern plane tree), growing in the south of the country, have a brown-brown core. The oblique direction of the wavy lines in the annual rings gives the texture of the plane trees, especially in the radial section, a grain-like appearance. Edible chestnut has a gray-brown core, the wood is similar to oak, but in a radial section it does not have shiny core rays. Horse chestnut is usually cross-layered, the wood is evenly colored, grayish in color (reminiscent of pine), convenient for carvings and mordants. Strength is high. Amur velvet (Amur cork tree) has wood similar to ash wood, but somewhat darker.

Rare hardwoods.

Rare hardwoods include pear, cherry, white locust, apple tree. In terms of density, the wood of these species exceeds oak and beech, has a beautiful color, is well processed and polished. Basically, the wood of these species is used in ornamental work.

White acaciahas a wide black-gray or green-brown heartwood, very strong wood with tangled fibers, which is difficult to work in a dry state. Wet - prone to brittleness. But the work is rewarded with a beautiful appearance of the product. Mulberry (Mulberry) has red-brown wood (sapwood is narrow); wood darkens when exposed to light. fruit tree wood cherries, cherries, plums, apples, apricots- an excellent ornamental material for a wide variety of products. As a rule, it is a very hard, small-layered wood of various shades - from white-pink to black-blue and purple in the core parts. With the exception of sweet cherry, pieces of wood of these species are not long due to the branching structure of the trees. Birch- the most widespread deciduous firm breed suitable for various coloring.

2. Conifers.

Pine(soft rock) - a good building material in various fields, it has found the widest application in furniture production up to various artistic crafts. Pine wood is quite strong, light, soft. When drying, it warps a little, it is well processed, impregnated and painted.

Spruce(soft rock) - main application - pulp and paper production and construction. A good material for the furniture industry, for the manufacture of musical instruments, It is used in the manufacture of tannins. Spruce, as a material, is inferior to pine. Although spruce wood is of a homogeneous structure with pine, it is more knotty, it is processed worse, and it is poorly impregnated with antiseptics. However, spruce, due to its low resin content, holds glue better and dries faster. Spruce has white wood with barely visible annual layers. She has black, randomly scattered knots, in contrast to pine, in which the knots are located in whorls (groups at the same level).

Has a very nice texture juniper- coniferous shrub with trunks up to 10 cm thick. The end cuts of juniper, suitable for inlay, are amazing in beauty. The pleasant smell of wood lasts for a very long time and joinery from it can be compared with similar products from camphor laurel, so loved in Europe in the last century.

Cypress, thujasimilar in properties to juniper, but their wood is grayer and more wide-layered. Cypress does not crack or warp, which is why it was previously used for icon boards. Cypress, thuja and juniper lend themselves well to fine carving. The remaining conifers are less suitable for fine carving.

Fir(soft rock) - used in the pulp and paper industry, construction, furniture industry, in the manufacture of musical instruments. Fir is also used in medicine for the manufacture of fir oil. Fir wood is close in its characteristics to spruce. Soft and light, it is difficult to impregnate with antiseptics. The scope of fir is narrowed due to its instability against decay.

Cedar, Siberian pine(softwood) - the scope is the same as that of pine (construction, furniture industry, carpentry, pencil making, etc.). In terms of physical and mechanical properties, it is between spruce and fir, but is more resistant to decay. Well handled.

Larch - beautiful beautiful creamy brown wood.

3. Imported wood.

Eucalyptus(hard rock) - finds application in bridge building, in hydraulic structures, in underwater technologies and, of course, in residential and industrial construction. Eucalyptus wood is strong, hard and heavy. Very resistant to decay. But it is difficult to process, the core of the tree is poorly impregnated with antiseptics. It grows in Georgia, Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines.

Mahogany (mahogany). The wood of this tree is used to make high-quality furniture, panels, various crafts and accessories. Mahogany carpentry tools are highly valued. The veneer from this tree is used to decorate prestigious products. The wood is hard, durable, does not crack or warp. Very beautiful texture. Mahogany belongs to the species with low density, it is well processed in industrial conditions, but it is difficult to hand-process. It grows in Mexico and Central America.

Cork tree (balsa)- in carpentry, it is used for the inner layers of glued laminated wood. A good heat and sound insulator, a filler for rescue equipment. Balsa wood is the lightest, fastest growing and softest of all tree species. It grows in Mexico, Central America and South America (Ecuador). There is balsa in Georgia (Colchis).

Getting down to the actual processing of wood, it is necessary to learn several methods of working with it: hewing, cutting, sawing, drilling, chiselling, planing, grinding and scraping. To perform each of these works, you will need a certain set of tools and knowledge.

wood cutting

It is used only when processing logs, plates and quarters. The main tool of work is an ax. Before proceeding with the hewing of a log, it is freed from the bark, laid on the scaffolding and the lines of the wood are marked with a cord. On the side of the log that is to be processed, notches are made at a distance of 400-500 mm to the depth of the part of the log that is hewn. After that, they begin to chip off the chips and cut through the log, strictly adhering to the marking lines (Fig. 40).

Rice. 40. Basic techniques for cutting wood.

The ax is directed from the top to the base in a circle of the trunk. In this case, the ax blade should not penetrate deep into the bark layer, so as not to damage the wood itself. In the course of work, along with the bark, protruding knots should also be cut off in order to prepare the wood for further processing as much as possible.

Sawing wood

We will not touch upon a type of sawing that requires the use of special equipment from woodworking enterprises.

Depending on how thick the solid wood is chosen, one or another saw is chosen. And the sawing technique used during work depends on the fixing of the workpiece on the workbench. If you fix the workpiece on the workbench horizontally, and at the same time position the saw perpendicular to the part itself, then this technique is called horizontal. At the same time, the cutting place should slightly extend beyond the surface of the workbench so that it is impossible to damage the working board during work, and it will be much more convenient to carry out the procedure.

A feature of the cross cut is that it does not pass along the fibers, but across them. This increases the likelihood of spalling both from the left part and from the sawn off part.

If a split occurs on a piece being sawn off, then you can easily remove excess wood from the desired part. But if the spall occurred exactly where it is necessary to have a flat, smooth surface, then you will either have to restore the wood or cut out a new part.

A thin hacksaw with a "mouse" tooth will help you avoid such troubles.

When cutting, several movements are made with a hacksaw blade along an already marked line, thereby strengthening the blade in solid wood. During further work, only the movements of the hacksaw are corrected if its blade tries to get around a knot or a difficult area. There should be no physical effort with proper sawing: only a slight uniform pressure on the hacksaw during smooth movements will ensure an even cut.

The workpiece is best positioned so that the cut piece is on the left side. At the end of the sawing, the free left hand will more easily hold the unnecessary piece and prevent it from falling to your feet. All movements during sawing out of the part are done in a swing, that is, completely guiding the hacksaw blade along the cut.

You can cut along the workpiece (Fig. 41, a) and across it (Fig. 41, b), along the fibers and across, at an angle.

Rice. 41. Sawing a workpiece: a - along the fibers; b - across the fibers.

You can use a sawing box - shtoslada (or miter box), in the walls of which cuts are made at an angle of 30, 45, 60 and 90 ° (Fig. 42).

Rice. 42. Sawing with a saw box.

The board is placed in the sawing box with its end to the cut line and pressed against one of the sides. The main thing is that you need to cut with a sharp, well-spread saw, evenly and freely, without making sudden movements, not too hard, but firmly pressing the saw blade to the bottom of the cut. At the very end of the cut, the sawn off piece should be held by hand so that it does not break off under its own weight.

A wide saw is needed for sawing boards and bars. The teeth of such a saw are obliquely sharpened and made in the shape of a triangle. The teeth of a narrow hacksaw should be set apart. This saw is used for sawing tess and shalevka.

Using the example of working with an IE-5107 electric saw, we will consider in detail the process of longitudinal sawing of boards with a thickness of more than 50 mm. To do this, it is better to use the saw in stationary mode, fixing it on the sawing table (Fig. 43).

Rice. 43. Scheme of processing lumber with an electric saw on a stationary machine: 1 - shield-racks; 2 - bed; 3 - diagonal contractions; 4, 6 - inclined and horizontal tables; 5 - electric saw; 7 - portable electric switch; 8 - horizontal shield; 9 - saw blade; 10 - clamp; 11 - processed board in the flat position; 12 - guide ruler; 13 - processed board in a position on the edge.

The shield for the top of the table is assembled from boards 40 mm thick and 130 mm wide. A gap is left between the extreme boards so that the saw blade can go through it to the surface of the shield. Below the shield, under the table, two tables are arranged for installing an electric saw in one of the positions: one is horizontal, the other is inclined. A horizontal table is placed in the end part, an inclined one - in the middle of a large table. The base plate of the electric saw is placed in the same plane with the top of the horizontal boards of the table, then the output of the disk above the table surface will be maximum.

Boards are cut out along the guide line or according to the markup. If you need to cut the wane of an unedged board, then this is done according to one markup. The board should move forward evenly. In this case, it is necessary to ensure that the vertical plane of the saw blade coincides with the imaginary vertical plane of the cut passing through the marking line, otherwise the saw may fail.

In order to select a quarter in the sheathing boards, place the saw in the middle part of the table and make two mutually perpendicular cuts in the board. The saw is installed at the same time in the lower part of the table, and its disk is combined with a gap in the boards of the table shield. Then the saw is moved up the table and fixed in a position where the disk protrudes above the table surface to the desired height.

To select a quarter in boards with a thickness of 40 mm, the saw blade is extended by 22 mm, that is, half the thickness of the board plus 2 mm. Before starting work, they check whether the saw blade touches the boards of the table shield with its side surface; to do this, the disk is simply rotated by hand. After that, the saw is fixed on the table, and a guide ruler 350–400 mm long is attached to the workbench board, for which a bar with a section of 40 x 40 mm is used. The ruler is placed to the right in the direction of travel from the protruding part of the disk at a distance of 20 mm from its axis.

Before work, it is necessary to check the correct installation of the saw. To do this, the board is placed on edge, its end is brought to the disk and at the same time its side face is pressed against the guide ruler.

Having positioned the teeth of the saw along the axis of the board, turn on the electric saw and, pressing the board against the guide ruler, evenly feed it forward until it is sawn along the entire length. After that, the board is rotated 90 °, laid flat and again, pressing the board against the ruler, a second cut is made at right angles to the first. When the second cut is completed, a rail with a cross section of 19 x 20 mm is separated from the board. In the same way, a quarter is chosen from the opposite side of the board.

Marking, sawing and planing of hard fibreboards

The decision to single out the issues of working with fiberboard in a separate chapter is not accidental. Fibreboard is used in flooring and furniture making with your own hands, so the skills to work with such boards can be useful to both a carpenter and a carpenter.

The reason for most of the mistakes made in the manufacture of furniture parts from slabs and when laying floors from them is incorrect marking, so this operation should be taken very seriously.

Before marking, the slab is carefully examined and it is decided which edges should be cut off, and also determine which side will be the front and which the back. To obtain one or another flat part, it is often sufficient to saw off two extreme strips from the plate - longitudinal and transverse, and so that the largest possible defects remain on them. However, in any case, marking is done along the entire contour, otherwise this operation will again have to be performed before planing.

The markup, the sequence of which is shown in Fig. 44, a, is produced first on the front face.

Rice. 44. Marking the plate for sawing (a) and transferring the markup: b - from the front face to the edge; c - from the edge to the back face.

The first risk is drawn along the ruler along the longitudinal edge, which is not sawn off. It is made at such a distance from the edge that all traces of crumbled areas remain outside this line. Usually this removal does not exceed 3 mm. Then, using a square, two transverse risks are drawn at right angles to the longitudinal side, starting from the unsawn edge. After that, the circuit is closed with a second longitudinal risk. All dimensions of the part are set aside without allowances, exactly according to the project.

On the wood, the risk is drawn with a pencil. Remember the rule: before making risks, you need to check the correctness of the pending dimensions and the accuracy of the right angle. If its value is more or less than 90 °, the parts will not fit one another during assembly.

From the front side of the workpiece, the markup is transferred to the back using a square, as shown in Fig. 44b, c.

In order to achieve full compliance with the risks, both end points are first transferred to the back side, and then they are connected along the ruler with a risk. It is impossible to confine oneself to marking one front side, since during sawing it is possible to skew and take the saw at risk, which is especially often observed among novice craftsmen. In the absence of control markings on the reverse side, it becomes impossible to check the correctness of the cut. As a result, the part is narrowed or shortened, you have to make a new one.

The need to mark the back face is also due to another reason. When sawing, chipping and chipping can occur on the reverse side of the board. To avoid this, the risk on the back is made deep, for which purpose an awl is drawn along the marking line several times, each time increasing the pressure.

The process of sawing plates has one very important feature. It is necessary to cut not at risk, but at a distance of about 2 mm parallel to it, leaving a small allowance for subsequent planing of the edge. It is impossible to do without such an allowance, because even with careful work with a saw, the edge will still not turn out to be as even and smooth as when planing. In the event that several parts need to be cut out of a large slab, not one, but two risks are drawn along their boundaries, located in parallel and spaced about 5 mm from one another. Sawing should be in the middle between the risks. Part of the material in the gap will go into the cut, and the rest - into allowances.

The plate, as a rule, is sawn first in the longitudinal and then in the transverse direction. In order to avoid shifting of the plate during operation, it is fixed, and the simplest way is the following: they sit on the plate by pushing the saw cut over the edge of the table or stool.

First, a shallow cut is made with a slight short movement of the saw towards itself. So that the saw does not slip off the gash, its blade is directed along the thumb of the left hand or nail bent at the joint (Fig. 45, a).

Rice. 45. Sawing the slab: a - washed down; b - sawing.

Only after that, you can start sawing at full swing with a slight pressure when moving the hacksaw away from you. In this case, the saw is gradually installed almost perpendicular to the surface of the plate (Fig. 45, b).

Strengthening the pressure on the saw should not be. This will only make work more difficult and increase the likelihood of distortion. Sawing slowly, trying to adhere to a single rhythm. In the process of work, it is recommended to periodically turn the plate over and check the location of the cut in relation to the risk.

To avoid distortions, the plate is sawn in small sections alternately from the front, then from the back, but in this case it is recommended to cut deep risks from both sides.

If the length of the cut is large, it is sawn in one direction until its middle, and then the plate is turned 180 ° and moves towards the cut made. Particular care must be taken at the point where the cuts are connected, because the plate may break off. Plates, the length of which does not exceed 300 mm, do not need to be cut in two directions; but in order to prevent breakage, the sawing is completed in slow motion, while holding the part to be sawn off with the left hand.

When sawing the slab, local chipping of the facing layer occurs, but this is not scary, since it does not extend beyond the marking risk, and the remaining strip with the broken lining will be removed during the planing process, which evens out and makes all edges smooth. Before carrying out this operation, the plate is fixed in a vertical position. This cannot be done using a vice alone, therefore, for rather large slabs, an additional stand with a variable support height is required (Fig. 46, a), which is a stand with oblique notches mounted on a cross. A slider moves along this rack, fixed at the level of any notch with a wire bracket.

Rice. 46. ​​Stand for supporting the plate during planing (a) and fixing the processed plate (b): 1 - stand; 2 - cross; 3 - slider; 4 - bracket; 5 - vice; 6 - plate.

To make such a stand, you will need: a bar for a stand and a slider, planks for a cross, a piece of wire with a diameter of 3–4 mm for a bracket, nails for hammering together a cross and attaching a stand to it. The supporting shoulders and notches on the stand are cut with a hacksaw. The wire clamp is bent in a vice and inserted from both sides into the holes punched in the slider with a nail. The fastening of the processed plate is shown in fig. 46, b: one side of it is clamped in a vice, and the other is supported by a slider installed at the required height, which is determined by the elevation of the processed edge above the floor level that is convenient for planing. Usually it is 900-1000 mm.

The edges are planed without special markings, since this operation was carried out at the very beginning of processing, and after sawing correctly, the marking risks should remain clearly visible and intact. First, one of the longitudinal edges is planed, then both transverse and the second longitudinal. Planing can be carried out both from two ends, and from one. In the first case, in order not to chip off the far corner of the slab, in the direction of which the planer moves, the edge is processed to the middle from one end, and then, turning the slab 180 °, from the opposite. When planing in one direction at the far end, at the level of the marking risk, a deep notch (notch) is first made using a knife or chisel for this purpose.

The edges are first leveled with a sherhebel, and then with a planer. In the event that the thickness of the chips removed by the sherhebel does not exceed 1–1.5 mm, they begin to work with a planer. The edges of chipboard are planed in the same way as the edges of any other boards. The only difference is that instead of ordinary tape chips, chips are separated in the form of crumbs. The ends of the bars come out on the edge of the blockboard, therefore, when it is planed, the release of the knife blade is reduced.

Beginning carpenters, working with a planer, very often make the following mistake: at the beginning of the movement, when the tool enters the surface to be machined, it is lifted up, and at the end, on the contrary, it is tilted down. As a result, the initial and final sections of the edge are overcut, and the middle part remains uncut. To avoid such errors, at the beginning of planing, you should press harder on the tool with your left hand, and at the end with your right. In the middle part of the edge, the pressure of both hands should be the same.

The tilt of the planer to the side leads to a distortion of the treated surface. And due to the change in inclination from one side to the other, a propeller-like surface is formed, which is very difficult to straighten. You can detect the skew using a square. This tool is periodically applied with the long side to the plate face, and the short side to the edge. If there is a skew, the raised areas are touched.

Due to the presence of double-sided marking marks, control during planing is greatly simplified. By the risks, you can see in which places the slab is planed more, and in which it is less. The main thing is not to overstrain the risks, otherwise you can ruin the edge and damage the facing layer.

The quality of the work done is checked by placing the plate with a planed edge on a smooth table. If it does not fall, then the planing is done correctly.

planing wood

This technique of wood processing consists in leveling the surface after sawing. Depending on the stages of planing, different types of planers are used.

The part prepared for finishing is placed on a workbench and fixed. They start with a rough alignment, for which they use a sherhebel. In this case, all movements are directed across the fibers, but not along them, since too much wood can be removed. If along the route of the sherhebel there are serrations that make processing difficult, then do not focus on them. Otherwise, in this place, the wood may break off, and the bar will become unsuitable for further work.

After processing the surface of small parts with a sherhebel, it is cleaned initially with a single planer, and then with a double one. When working with long parts, such as boards, it is better to use a jointer or semi-joiner. The jointer is held by the handle with the right hand, and the body is supported with the left slightly behind the cork. Only when one section of the part is processed in width with a jointer, do they move on to another section. When processing the ends, the details of the movement are directed from the edges to the middle, then chips and flakes will not occur.

Planer techniques are slightly different. The advance of the planer on the surface should be directed along the fibers, and not against them. When working with a planer, lightly press with your left hand on the front of its body, and with your right hand on the back. This is the only way to get a flat and smooth surface. On fig. 47 shows how to work with a planer.

Rice. 47. Planer work: a - correct; b is wrong.

Drilling wood

This technique is used to make various holes. Holes can be through and deaf, deep and shallow, wide and narrow. Drilling produces a selection of round holes and sockets for spikes, screws, bolts, in addition, drill out knots to replace them with plugs.

Before starting drilling, a drill of the appropriate size is selected, then a mark is applied to the wood with an awl, the drill is fixed in the chuck and set exactly on the mark. If a blind hole is drilled, then as the drill moves into the solid wood, the pressure on the drill is gradually weakened, then there will be no chipping of the wood and the formation of a through hole.

Chiselling wood

Slotting is used when it is necessary to obtain through and blind sockets for spiked joints. This work is done with a chisel and chisels. If the tool is well sharpened, then, as a rule, there are no difficulties during execution.

Before starting work, the bar or workpiece is well fixed in a vise. Then markup is applied to the surface of the wood with a simple hard pencil, after which risks are made with a knife.

If it is necessary to make a sufficiently deep and large hole, then first select the wood with a chisel, and then proceed to clean the surface with a chisel.

Another small note: when starting work, pay due attention to the selection of wood near the edges, which are located across the grain direction.

Blind large holes are made as follows: the blade of the chisel is driven in with a mallet, then it is slightly tilted in the opposite direction, from which the chamfer on the canvas is removed, and the canvas is lifted up. The wood is broken and several pieces are separated from the array. Then they retreat 2–3 mm from the hole made and repeat the same. When finishing the edges, the recesses always recede by 1-2 mm, and the chisel is placed with a chamfer to the edge. If you raise the blade of the chisel with the side where the chamfer is removed, then you can crush the wood with the uncleaned surface of the blade.

If it is necessary to make a through hole, then the wood is sampled from both sides at the same time, gradually reducing the intermediate layer.

The slotted hole is cleaned at the edges with a straight narrow chisel.

wood cutting

Cutting is always done either with chisels or with a joint knife. Most often, wood sampling is carried out with chisels, which allow you to make precise holes and recesses of various shapes and depths. The joint knife can only partially replace the missing tool. When using the tool that is best suited for the job, remember that replacement should always remain only a temporary event. The sooner you find the tool you need, the faster and better the work will be.

Chisels are used in the same way as a chisel, only wood is impacted without a hammer.

Wood cutting is performed as follows: a chisel blade is installed on the markup with a chamfer inside the future recess. Then the chisel is cut deep into the wood by 2-3 mm. After the first cut, the chisel is set 1–2 mm deep into the intended nest and the same cut is made. As a result, a small recess is obtained. Gradually moving in depth and capturing more and more wood at one time, they get the necessary hole. In the middle of the recess, the incision can be made to a depth of about 5-6 mm, but near the edges, so as not to damage the sides, only 2-3 mm.

In order to make a through hole, a cut is made from the very edges to the full depth. If necessary, pruning is done in several steps.

After sampling the wood, the bottom and sides of the formed recess must be cleaned with a narrow straight or semicircular chisel.

Wood scraping

This type of processing allows using a cycle knife to clean the wood surface as smoothly as possible, where it is not possible to do it with a chisel or planer. In this case, the process itself is more like scraping. The movements of the cycles are directed towards themselves, and the knife itself is set with a chamfer up.

Sanding wood

After all work is completed, level and clean the treated surface after the planer. For grinding the surface, an emery cloth is used, which is an abrasive coating on a paper, cloth or cardboard base.

Depending on the size of the grains and the type of abrasive, several types of skins are distinguished. On the inner surface of the roll, you need to pay attention to the letter and number designations. The letters indicate the types of abrasive used in the skin, and the numbers indicate the degree of grinding of the abrasive. The smaller the number on the inside, the finer the grains are applied to the surface of the skin.

The letter C on the inside indicates that crushed glass is used here, KV - quartz, and KR - silicon. These are one of the most commonly used abrasives.

A coarse, coarse-grained skin is used for rough surface treatment, and for final grinding, a fine-grained one is taken, which leaves no marks on the surface.

To facilitate the work, take a small bar and wrap it with a skin.

In addition, such a bar allows you to evenly clean the surface without the formation of bumps and depressions. The quality of the surface also depends on the force of pressure on the bar. The stronger the pressure, the greater the likelihood of an uneven surface.

Of considerable importance is the direction in which the grinding is done. When sanding across the direction of the grain, the marks will remain more visible than when sanding in the direction of the grain or obliquely.

Hobbies are different. One needs to listen to music, the other needs to walk with a small plane through the forest-smelling and resinous wood. And to sit, say, on your own hand-made garden furniture is a pleasure. But any business begins with the choice of material. So, to business!

What kind of wood and what is it for?

Let's start with the fact that carpentry work is divided into white wood and cabinetry. The starting material for white wood works is softwood and soft hardwood. These are birch and linden, as well as poplar. For cabinetry, solid wood is used, mainly valuable hardwoods. But in any case, preference is given to those tree species that have a straight trunk and a limited number of knots. Knowing the properties of tree species, you can choose the right wood for certain jobs.

For example, coniferous trees are used as a basis for veneering various parts with veneer. Due to the softness of the wood of these species, facial parts are rarely made. But with certain technologies, even furniture is made from coniferous wood. One of the advantages of coniferous wood is that it is easily stained. On the other hand, the color background muffles the decorative qualities of this wood.

Hardwood is usually used in its entirety. This category includes: birch, walnut, ash, etc. In mosaic work, both hardwood and softwood veneers are acceptable. Quite another thing - wood carving. Not so many tree species are suitable for this purpose, for example, linden, mountain ash and birch are suitable. This list can be supplemented with willow and aspen. In the case when it is necessary to preserve the natural color of the tree, maple and chestnut are used, as well as pear and oak.

Choose wisely

When choosing wood, an experienced carpenter will pay attention to radial cracks in the end. In benign material, they are absent at all, and if they are, then they are small. And wood with cracks going through the layers is considered not at all suitable for carpentry.

Coniferous wood is of better quality, the denser the annual layers. Wide-layer wood is usually too loose, which means it is fragile. As for the age of the trees, the average is considered optimal, that is, mature. For example, pine is most suitable for carpentry, reaching 80 - 90 years, for oak it is 80 - 150 years. At the same age, the tree reaches its greatest flexibility.

By the way, it also depends on what time of the year the tree was cut down. Wood harvested in autumn is more flexible than wood harvested in winter. The most flexible are alder, fir, hornbeam and larch.

It will be a shame if a product made of wood breaks. To prevent this, carefully consider the choice of wood. More surprises can be expected from dense and flexible breeds. However, the entanglement of tree species reduces this likelihood.

As for the health of wood, craftsmen in every possible way avoid wood that is affected by fungal diseases. A clear sign is an uneven or excessively bright color. And too many knots reduce its strength.

Dry wood properly

Competently performed drying of wood in carpentry is, if not paramount, then at least very important. First, it is necessary to correctly determine the time required for this. Experienced carpenters know: both under-dried and over-dried wood is not suitable for work. Everything affects: humidity, temperature changes. The result may turn out to be, although predictable, but not very pleasant - cracked, which means ruined material.

Therefore, when drying, you need to take into account some nuances. Let us assume that the wood harvested in winter has less moisture content. The reason is simple: trees slow down at this time.

There is also such a feature: hard rocks are more sensitive to both underdrying and overdrying. For soft and loose rocks, this factor is less important. If you are making a product from several types of wood, select them in such a way that the product is homogeneous. Only in this case the degree of drying will coincide, which is important.

There are several methods of wood processing:

• Cutting;
• Sawing;
• Planing;
• drilling;
• chiselling;
• Cutting;
• Cycling;
• grinding;

To perform each of these techniques, you will need a specific set of tools and possession of a specific set of knowledge. If you have never come across some kind of technique, then at the first experiments you may not succeed. You should not get upset at the same time - even the most skilled craftsmen always started from scratch.

It is used only when processing logs, plates and quarters. This processing technique consists in separating the bark from the solid wood. The main tool that is used in the work is an ax.
All actions of the ax are directed from the top to the base in a circle of the trunk. In this case, the ax blade should not penetrate deep into the bark layer, so as not to damage the wood itself. In the course of work, along with the bark, protruding knots should also be cut off, thereby preparing the wood as much as possible for further processing.

Sawing wood

This technique includes two varieties at once.

Firstly, during the mechanical sawing of logs and plates, boards of varying degrees of quality can be obtained.

Secondly, with the help of this technique, certain details can be made from the received boards.

We will not touch on the first type of sawing, because it requires special equipment that is used only in woodworking enterprises.

The second sawing method can also be performed on a workbench at home. Depending on how thick the solid wood is chosen, you will need to choose one or another saw. By how you fix the workpiece on the workbench, the sawing technique used during the work depends. If you fix the workpiece on the workbench horizontally, while the saw is perpendicular to the part itself, then this technique is called horizontal.

At the same time, the cutting place should slightly extend beyond the surface of the workbench, so that during work you cannot damage the working board, and the procedure itself will be much more convenient. A feature of the cross cut is that the cut does not pass along the fibers, but across them. This increases the likelihood of spalling both from the left part and from the sawn off part. Well, if the split occurred on the sawn off piece - you can easily then remove the excess wood from the desired part.

But if the chipping occurs exactly where you need to have a smooth, even surface, you will either have to restore the wood or cut out a new part. A thin hacksaw with a “mouse tooth” will help you avoid such troubles.

If you need to saw off a board or bar at a right angle or at an angle of 45 degrees, and you already have a miter box at hand, then you only need to lay the board evenly in the groove, press it to the side farthest from you and evenly, without moving the workpiece, cut off an unnecessary piece . When cutting, make several movements with the hacksaw blade along the already marked line, thereby strengthening the blade in solid wood. In further work, you only need to adjust the movements of the hacksaw if its blade tries to get around a knot or a difficult area. Your efforts are reduced only to monitoring the uniformity of the penetration of the teeth throughout the area. There should be no physical effort with proper sawing: in this you can completely rely on the saw, but not with your whole body, because only a slight uniform pressure on the hacksaw during smooth movements will ensure an even cut. During this operation, the workpiece is best positioned so that the sawn off piece is on the left side. At the end of the sawing, the free left hand will more easily hold the unnecessary piece and prevent it from falling to your feet. All movements when sawing out a part are done in a swing, i.e. completely guiding the hacksaw blade along the cut. When using an electric saw, all operations are performed in the same way as when working with a hand saw.

This technique of wood processing consists in leveling the surface after sawing. Depending on the stages of planing, different types of planers are used. Lay the part prepared for finishing on a workbench and fix it. First of all, start with a rough leveling, for which use a sherhebel. In this case, all movements are directed across the fibers, but not along them, since too much wood can be removed.

If along the route of the sherhebel there are serrations that make processing difficult, then do not focus on them. Otherwise, in this place, the wood may break off, and the bar will become unsuitable for further work. After processing the surface of small parts with a sherhebel, it must be cleaned with a single planer, and then with a double one. If you are working with long parts, such as boards, then you are better off using a jointer or semi-joiner. The advance of the planer on the surface should be directed along the fibers, and not against them. Only in this way can you make the surface even and smooth. When planing the ends of boards and bars, make several movements with a planer from one edge to the center, and then several movements from the other edge to the center. This will allow you to avoid the formation of spalls and flakes at the ends.

This technique is used to make various holes. These holes can be through and deaf, deep and shallow, wide and narrow. Before you start drilling, you need to select a drill of the appropriate size, then mark the wood with an awl, fix the drill in the chuck and set the drill exactly on the mark. If you want to drill a blind hole, then as the drill moves into the solid wood, gradually loosen the pressure on the drill - this way you will avoid chipping the wood and forming a through hole.

Before starting work, secure the bar or workpiece in a vise well. Then mark on the surface of the wood, first with a simple hard pencil, and then make risks with a knife. If you need to make a sufficiently deep and large hole, then first select the wood with a chisel, and then proceed to clean the surface with a chisel. One more small note. Before you begin, give credit to the selection of wood near the edges, which are located across the direction of the fibers. Blind large holes are made as follows: drive in the blade of the chisel with a mallet, then slightly tilt it in the opposite direction from which the chamfer on the canvas was chamfered, and lift the canvas up.

Break the wood and separate several pieces from the array. Then step back 2-3 mm from the hole made and do the same. When finishing the edges of the recess, always retreat from it by 1-2 mm, and place the chisel with a bevel to it. If you lift the chisel blade with the chamfered side, then you will undermine the wood with the uncleaned surface of the blade. If you need to make a through hole, then sample the wood from both sides at the same time, gradually reducing the intermediate layer. Clean the slotted hole at the edges with a straight narrow chisel.

wood cutting

Cutting is always done either with chisels or with a joint knife. Most often, wood sampling is carried out with chisels, which allow you to make precise holes and recesses of various shapes and depths.

A joint knife can only somewhat replace a tool that does not exist. By using the tool best suited for the job, you will realize that replacement should always remain only a temporary event. The sooner you find the tool you need, the faster and better the work will be. Chisels are used in the same way as a chisel, only the impact on wood is made without a hammer.

Cutting wood is carried out as follows: on the markup, install the blade of the chisel with a chamfer inside the future recess. Then cut the chisel deep into the wood by 2-3 mm. After the first cut, install the chisel 1-2 mm deep into the intended nest and make the same cut. As a result, you will get a small notch. Gradually moving into the depths and grabbing more and more wood in one go, you will make the hole you need. In the middle of the recess, the incision can be made to a depth of about 5-6 mm, but near the edges, so as not to damage the sides, only 2-3 mm, no more. In order to make a through hole, make a cut to the full depth from the very edges. If necessary, pruning can be done in several steps. After sampling the wood, be sure to clean the bottom and sides of the resulting recess with a narrow straight or semicircular chisel.

Wood cycling

This type of processing allows using a knife to clean the surface of wood as smoothly as possible, where a chisel or planer cannot do it. In this case, the process itself is more like scraping. The movements of the cycle are directed towards themselves, and the knife itself is set with a chamfer up.

After all the work is completed, you just have to level and clean the treated surface after the planer. For grinding the surface, an emery cloth is used, which is an abrasive coating on a paper, cloth or cardboard base. Depending on the size of the grains and the type of abrasive, several types of skins are distinguished. On the inner surface of the roll, pay attention to the letter and number designation. The letters indicate the types of abrasive used in the skin, and the numbers indicate the degree of grinding of the abrasive. The smaller the number on the inside, the finer the grains are applied to the surface of the skin.

If you saw the letter "C", then this means that crushed glass is used here.

"KB" in this case stands for quartz, and "KR" for silicon. These are one of the most commonly used abrasives.
Coarse, coarse-grained sandpaper is used for rough surface treatment, and for final grinding it is better to take fine-grained sandpaper, which will not leave grain marks on the surface. In order for the fingers not to get tired of holding the skin properly, take a small bar and wrap it with skin. In addition, such a bar allows you to evenly clean the surface without the formation of bumps and depressions. The evenness of the surface also depends on the force of pressure on the bar. The harder you press, the more likely it is that an uneven surface will form. The direction in which you grind is also important. When sanding across the grain direction, the marks will remain more visible than when sanding along the grain direction or somewhat obliquely.

It is almost impossible to do without glue when connecting parts. When gluing wood, you need to use an adhesive that should be either transparent or light, does not change the color of the wood, does not set too quickly, its excess is easily removed, and inside the seam it would help to protect the wood from rotting and penetration of microorganisms inside. In addition, most adhesives are water repellent.

• Bonding technology
• Sticking technology

Adhesives

All adhesives can be divided into natural and synthetic. Depending on what ingredients are used in the preparation of natural glue, they are animal, vegetable and mineral. In the manufacture of synthetic adhesives, only artificially created compounds are used. Any glue that you need for work consists of several components: the adhesive itself, a solvent that maintains a certain consistency of the composition, a hardener that helps it to seize and connect parts, and antiseptics that protect the treated surface from insects, microorganisms and various substances. destroying the wood structure.

Among natural adhesives, the most commonly used bone prepared on the basis of bone meal. But such adhesives do not react well to moisture, and therefore, if you are going to do something for a bath, sauna or put it near the pool, you better take another glue for gluing.

Casein glues are made on the basis of milk protein. They bond surfaces very strongly, but alkali is used as a solvent, which stains the wood.

Glue K-17 it is convenient for clean gluing of large surfaces, it forms a thin film and does not harden for a long time.

PVA glue, or polyvinyl acetate dispersion, sets quickly and therefore requires speed in work. It is a white liquid that becomes a transparent film after drying. This glue is the most versatile when gluing parts. carpentry glue can be used several times. To do this, you just need to heat the glue on the fire. Both carpentry and bone glue are sold in granules or shavings, which turn into a sticky mass at home. If you bought glue in the form of shavings or granules, then you can immediately pour it into hot water and, stirring, bring over low heat until completely dissolved. If you bought glue in the form of tiles, then before lowering it into water, crush the glue, then fill it with cold water in a bowl and leave it for a day until it swells completely. And only then transfer the pieces to another bowl and proceed to the gluing procedure itself. The finished glue should drain from the stick, which is used when stirring, it should be thick and resemble fatty sour cream in consistency.

In order to prepare glue, you will need to acquire a special device - glue stick. It can be replaced with two ordinary pans, and one of them should be slightly smaller so that it can be easily attached to the sides of the other with handles. Pour water into a smaller saucepan and add glue, and pour water into another so that the glue being prepared does not burn. If foam forms during the preparation of the glue, then it must be periodically removed. Most adhesives do not last long and smell rotten the next day at room temperature. In order for the glue to stand for several days, when preparing it, you can add a few grams of phenol at the rate of 1 g per 1 liter. glue.

Now the prepared glue can be applied to the surface of the part. To do this, you will need either a bristle brush or lime bark, a piece of which has been pre-soaked. In any case, the adhesive is applied to the surface in a thin layer.

Gluing

There are two ways to connect parts with glue: gluing or gluing. Gluing is used for various joints on the spike and on the mustache. Gluing is used only in the manufacture of plywood, when finishing the surface with veneer, etc. There are two ways to glue the parts: by squeezing the surfaces with clamps or by rubbing the surfaces together after applying glue to them. Lapping connects mainly thin parts, which, after a slight setting, are adjusted to each other and left until the glue dries completely. This method of adhesive bonding of parts should occur quickly and clearly, therefore, before proceeding with its implementation, prepare everything you need for work: clamps, gaskets, tapes, supports, belts, as well as the surfaces of the parts to be glued, which must be clean. In case you accidentally stained it with dirty hands or dripped oil, wipe the dirt with acetone or alcohol. Bonding pads are used to distribute the compressive force as evenly as possible. It also protects the surface from the formation of dents when clamped with clamps. The gasket is always made slightly larger than the dimensions of the parts to be glued. Most often, gaskets are made from plywood sheets. Also, to avoid the surfaces sticking to the gaskets, you will need to place more sheets of paper between the gasket and the surface. When gluing using the compression method, be sure to ensure that when installing the clamps there is no displacement of the surfaces, which can then no longer be restored.

To make the seam good, durable, it is best to work in a room where the temperature does not drop below 20 degrees. Also, the glue must be applied in a thin, even layer, while the glue should not be too liquid. But a thick layer is also unacceptable - when it dries, it will crack. Also, do not try to grind the surfaces to be glued - the planes should be slightly rough, which will allow you to get a reliable connection. If you need to glue several parts at once, do not try to apply glue to everything at once - in the lower layers the glue will begin to set, but will not be evenly distributed, this will make the surface look like waves. To prevent this from happening, divide the parts into several parts, glue the planks of the parts together, and then the parts. It is best to glue the levels, for example, in one step - the legs of the chairs, in the other - the seats. If you have to glue a complex structure consisting of many knots, then first connect all the parts without glue, adjust if something protrudes, and only then apply glue. Obvious defects during gluing cannot be eliminated, and it is also impossible to disassemble an already glued structure without damaging it. After you have applied glue to the nodes of the structure, you need to put it under a press and hold it for a certain time so that the glue completely sets and dries. If you used wood glue, then you can remove the part from under the press only after a day has passed. PVA glue requires less time - only 4-5 hours. But this does not mean that the glue is completely dry and the design is ready for further work. After the required time has elapsed, loosen the clamps, check if everything is as you need, if there are any shifts in the layers, and put everything on for a day so that the glue dries completely.

Sticking

Sticking differs from gluing in that only facing work is performed here. This is a fairly simple way to imitate solid woods using only veneer and a wooden base. In addition, this technique will also help you in the manufacture of mosaics, which will perfectly decorate the top of any table, wardrobe doors, bedside table in the bedroom, etc. Although precious wood veneer is used here, and the work itself requires care and accuracy of the eye, this work can be performed even by a person who has never dealt with a tree. It is more like an application made of paper and cardboard. But there are several features that must always be remembered and observed during work.

• Glue the veneer only on a very flat surface, slightly rough, but without visible notches. If I may say so, the surface of the base should be velvet.
• The veneer must be glued across the direction of the fibers of the base, but not along, otherwise cracks may appear that will only spoil the surface. They arise due to different shrinkage of the veneer and the base.
• If you are using an expensive veneer and sticking it on a particle board, then be sure to stick an intermediate layer of cheap veneer or cotton fabric.
• When using burl or high-grain wood veneer, choose a base of carefully dried wood to prevent cracks later.
• For gluing veneer on small surfaces, use PVA glue, and on large surfaces, use wood glue. This will help you to make the sticking better.

As well as gluing, gluing is carried out in two ways: by pressing and lapping. Both methods are performed in the following sequence:

1. First, apply a layer of glue to the base, then lay the veneer on it, iron it with a clean cloth, thereby removing all air bubbles from under it. After that, for a better connection, moisten the top of the veneer with a sponge and warm water. After 1-2 hours, when the glue begins to thicken, lap the veneer in the direction of the fibers, being careful not to pick up the edges. To do this, all movements must be directed towards the edges or diagonally to them.
2. Before leaving the structure to complete bonding, lay sheets of white paper on
   seams. Now all this can be left as it is, or you can put it under the press, laying it on top of the veneer
   paper, then a gasket and only then clamp it with clamps;
3. Screened and heated sand can be used as a press for parts with an uneven, curved surface. Place a sheet of paper on the surface first, thereby protecting the veneer from contamination, and then a canvas sandbag. The more sand, the more pressure will be exerted. But it should not be excessive so that the veneer does not deform. The optimal pressure will be exerted by a layer of sand of 9-11 cm. It is possible to release the surface from such a press only after the sand has completely cooled so that the veneer does not “bubble”.

Now let's talk about the disadvantages that may arise when gluing veneer to the base.

First of all, this is the formation of the so-called "siskins" - places where the adhesive layer was insufficient and air cushions formed. The simplest tapping will help you find such areas - empty places will sound muffled, under blows. "Chizh" should be cut with a joint knife, then carefully lift one edge and pour a few drops of glue into the void with a pipette or syringe with a needle with a large clearance. After that, with a rag, stroking the surface in a circular motion, spread the glue inside the former "siskin" and iron the seam, on which you then need to apply a paper strip.

Then this place must be ironed with an iron heated to a temperature of 100-110 degrees.

Air bubbles formed due to uneven grinding most often have a convex shape. Such a bubble also needs to be cut, soak the veneer around the bubble a little, then pour a few drops of glue from a pipette or syringe and rub it with a warm iron through the paper.

Some veneer parts can move when glued. Thus, millimeters of excess veneer appear at the edges.

Only after the glue is completely fixed, they will have to be leveled. Depending on the size of the protruding edges, either a joint knife or a planer is used. The planer is suitable only for a relatively small protrusion - about 1 mm. The larger protrusion is removed with a joint knife. At the same time, be sure to place a plank of the same thickness next to the part so that the veneer does not break off during alignment.