Theodoro: the glorious history and tragic fate of the Orthodox principality in medieval Crimea. Principality of Theodoro: the last fragment of the Byzantine Empire The heyday of the former Byzantine colony

Principality of Theodoro: history of statehood,
borders, ethnic composition

Let's summarize. The Christian principality of Theodoro existed from the beginning of the 13th century to 1475. It was formed in the south and southwest of the peninsula as a result of a temporary fall in power in Constantinople, which occurred in 1204.

This medieval state of Crimea was adjacent to the Mongol-Tatars and Genoese. Later - with the Crimean Khanate. It is possible that until the second half of the 14th century, the principality of Kyrk-Or was located north of Theodoro.

As a result of confrontations with the Genoese, the principality lost part of the southern lands, known as the Captaincy of Gothia. The wars did not stop there. After the Mongol-Tatar raid in the first half of the 15th century, the state rose from ruins. Its inhabitants managed to take possession of Chembalo, Alushta, Partenit, Kherson and the Gorzuvita fortress, and built the port of Avlitu and the Funa fortress. People of different nationalities lived in the expanses of Theodoro. They were skilled artisans and farmers. The Principality of Theodoro was the only entity in Crimea that tried to repel the Turkish conquerors, but was never able to survive.

At the beginning of the 13th century, an ethnic group was formed from the descendants of different peoples - the Crimean Greeks, who used the Greek language for communication, professed the Orthodox Christian faith and developed Byzantine culture.

This contributed to the creation of separate Christian principalities, the largest of which was the Principality of Theodoro, which founded its capital on. Due to its location in a practically inaccessible place, until the end of the 14th century, the city successfully repelled the attacks of conquerors.

However, after the raid of Khan Edigei, a protege of the Central Asian ruler Timur, the capital of the principality of Theodoro lay in ruins until the beginning of the 15th century, and only after the Mangup princes managed to unite the local feudal lords within the southwestern Crimea, a new stage in the development of the principality began.

Constantly in the hostile environment of the Tatars and Genoese, the Theodorites were forced to seek support and allies on the side; for this purpose, dynastic marriages of representatives of the Mangup principality were concluded with representatives of noble and influential families of other states, such as the Trebizond Empire, Wallachia, and the Kingdom of Moscow. Much attention was paid to strengthening the Orthodox faith, old churches were revived and new churches were built.

To strengthen the borders, fortresses were built to prevent the Genoese from penetrating deep into the peninsula. Next to the Genoese fortresses, the fortress of Panea and others, the fortresses of Kamara and the fortress of Funa, the fortress on Mount Koshke were built.

In 1427, the Mangup prince Alexei, called “the ruler of Theodoro and Pomerania,” built the port of Avlita at the mouth of the Chernaya River and restored it for its protection. The Tatars did not interfere with the development of the port, as they were interested in trade with foreign merchants.

In 1433, the Theodorites captured the Cembalo fortress, although a year later the Italians managed to recapture it; the Theodorites defended their possessions and even ousted the Genoese.

The Theodorites developed normal trade relations, sealed by a friendly treaty.

The Turkish invasion led to the end of a prosperous state. The siege of the fortress, which began in 1475, lasted half a year. The city was plundered, the defenders were killed, and the princely family was taken to Turkey. Mangup became the residence of the Turkish Pasha, there was a Turkish garrison here, and the population of the city consisted mainly of Karaites.

In the 18th century, life in the city gradually faded away, but the remains of the fortress walls and ruins still remind of the former power of the Orthodox city-state of Theodoro.

In the context of the reunification of Crimea with Russia, anti-Russian forces have repeatedly made statements that Crimea was not originally Russian territory, but was annexed by the Russian Empire as a result of the annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Accordingly, it is emphasized that Russians are not the indigenous people of the peninsula and cannot have priority rights to this territory. It turns out that the peninsula is the territory of the Crimean Khanate, the historical heirs of which are the Crimean Tatars and Turkey, which is the successor to the overlord of the Bakhchisarai khans - the Ottoman Empire. However, it is somehow forgotten that before the advent of the Crimean Khanate the peninsula was Christian, and its population consisted of Greeks, Crimean Goths, Armenians and the same Slavs.

For the sake of restoring historical justice, it is worth paying attention to the events that took place in Crimea five centuries ago. The Crimean Tatars, who today position themselves as the indigenous people of the peninsula, were then just beginning their journey through this blessed land. For almost three centuries, from the beginning of the 13th century to the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, the Orthodox principality of Theodoro existed on the territory of Crimea. His glorious and tragic end testifies better than any rantings of biased politicians to the real fate of the indigenous inhabitants of the peninsula.

The uniqueness of the Principality of Theodoro is that this state, small in area and population, appeared on the ruins of the Byzantine Empire, which fell under the blows of Western European crusaders. That is, it belonged to the “Byzantine tradition”, the official heir of which in all subsequent centuries was the Russian state with its fundamental idea of ​​“Moscow – the Third Rome”.

The history of Theodoro dates back to the very beginning of the 13th century, when the former Byzantine possessions in Crimea were divided. Some fell under the rule of the Genoese and turned into colonies of the then prosperous Italian trading city of Genoa, and some, which managed to defend their independence and preserved the Orthodox faith, found themselves under the rule of a princely dynasty of Greek origin. Historians have still not come to a common conclusion as to which specific dynasty the rulers of the Theodorite state belonged to. It is known that in the veins of many of them flowed the blood of such famous dynasties as the Komnenos and Palaiologos.

Geographically, the lands in the southern mountainous part of the Crimean peninsula came under the rule of the Theodorite dynasty. If you mark the territory of the principality on a modern map, it turns out that it extended approximately from Balaklava to Alushta. The center of the state became the fortified city of Mangup, the ruins of which still delight tourists, remaining one of the most attractive destinations for routes through the historical monuments of the mountainous Crimea. In fact, Mangup is one of the oldest medieval cities in Crimea. The first information about it comes in the 5th century AD, when it was called “Doros” and served as the main city of Crimean Gothia. Already in those ancient times, several centuries before the baptism of Rus', Doros - the future Mangup - was one of the centers of Crimean Christianity. It was here that in the 8th century an uprising of local Christians broke out against the power of the Khazar Kaganate, which for some time managed to subjugate the mountainous regions of Crimea.

The uprising was led by Bishop John, later canonized as St. John of Goth. By origin, John was a Greek - the grandson of a Byzantine soldier who moved to Crimea from the coast of Asia Minor. Having chosen the path of a clergyman from his youth, in 758 John, while on the territory of Georgia at that time, was ordained bishop and, returning to his homeland, headed the diocese of Gothia. When a powerful anti-Khazar uprising took place in Crimea in 787, the bishop took an active part in it. However, the troops of the Kaganate, temporarily driven out of the mountainous regions, soon managed to prevail over the rebels. Bishop John was captured and thrown into prison, where he died four years later.

When remembering Bishop John, it is impossible not to mention that at the height of the confrontation between iconoclasts and icon-worshipers, he took the side of the latter and contributed to the fact that icon-worshippers - priests and monks - began to flock from the territory of Asia Minor and other possessions of the Byzantine Empire to the southwestern coast of Crimea who created their own monasteries and made a huge contribution to the establishment and development of Orthodox Christianity on the Crimean Peninsula. It was icon worshipers who created most of the famous cave monasteries of the mountainous Crimea.

In the 9th century, after the Khazar Khaganate finally lost its political influence in the mountainous part of the Crimean Peninsula, the latter returned to the rule of the Byzantine emperors. Kherson, as ancient Chersonesus was now called, became the seat of the strategist who administered the Byzantine possessions on the southern coast of Crimea. The first collapse of the Byzantine Empire in the 12th century affected the life of the peninsula in that it found itself in the sphere of influence of one of its three parts - Trebizond, which controlled the central part of the Southern Black Sea region (now the Turkish city of Trabzon).

Numerous political vicissitudes in the life of the Byzantine Empire could not but affect its real role in the management of the Crimean coast. Gradually, the representatives of the imperial power based in Kherson - the strategists, and then the archons, lost real influence on the local feudal rulers. As a result, the Theodorite princes reigned in Mangup, as Doros was now called. Historians draw attention to the fact that even before the emergence of the Principality of Theodoro, the Mangup rulers bore the title of toparch. It is quite possible that one of them was precisely the toparch whom the Kiev prince took under his protection (according to some sources - Svyatoslav, according to others - Vladimir).

There is a version that the princely family of Theodoro belonged to the Byzantine aristocratic family of Gavras. This ancient aristocratic family, in the X-XII centuries. who ruled Trebizond and surrounding territories was of Armenian origin. Which is not surprising - after all, “Great Armenia”, the eastern lands of the Byzantine Empire, were of great importance for the latter, since they were at the forefront of the fight against the eternal rivals of Constantinople - first the Persians, then the Arabs and the Seljuk Turks. Some historians believe that it was one of the representatives of the Gavrasov family who was sent to Crimea by the Trebizond rulers as a governor and, subsequently, headed his own state.

The most famous representative of this family was Theodore Gavras. Without exaggeration, this man can be called a hero. In 1071, when the Byzantine army suffered a crushing defeat from the Seljuk Turks, he was only just over twenty years old. However, a young aristocrat of Armenian origin managed to gather a militia without the help of the Byzantine emperor and recapture Trebizond from the Seljuks. Naturally, he became the ruler of Trebizond and the surrounding territories and for about thirty years led the Byzantine troops in battles against the Seljuk sultans. Death awaited the military leader shortly before he would have turned fifty years old. In 1098, Theodore Gavras was captured by the Seljuks and killed for refusing to accept the Muslim faith. Three centuries later, the Trebizond ruler was canonized by the Orthodox Church.

Funa Fortress

Representatives of the Gavrasov family were, of course, proud of their famous relative. Subsequently, the Trebizond family was divided into at least four branches. The first ruled in Trebizond until the accession of the Komnin dynasty that replaced them. The second occupied important government posts in Constantinople. The third headed Koprivstitsa, a fief on the territory of Bulgaria that existed until the end of the 18th century. Finally, the fourth branch of the Gavras settled on the southwestern coast of Crimea. Who knows - were they not destined to lead the state of the Theodorites?

Be that as it may, the establishment of political ties between Russia and the Crimean principality with its capital in Mangup goes back deep into those troubled times. Being a fragment of the Byzantine Empire, the Principality of Theodoro played a fairly important role in the system of dynastic ties of the Orthodox states of Eastern Europe and the Black Sea region. It is known that Princess Maria Mangupskaya (Palaeologus), the wife of Stephen the Great, ruler of Moldavia, came from the Theodorite ruling house. Another Mangup princess married David, the heir to the Trebizond throne. Finally, Maria Mangupskaya’s sister Sophia Paleolog became neither more nor less - the wife of the Moscow sovereign Ivan the Third.

Several Russian noble families also have their roots in the Principality of Theodoro. Thus, at the end of the 14th century, part of the princely Gavras family moved from Theodoro to Moscow, giving rise to the old boyar dynasty of the Khovrins. For a long time, it was this Crimean family that was entrusted with the most important position of treasurer for the Moscow state. Since the 16th century, the Khovrin family gave rise to two other noble Russian families that played an important role in Russian history - the Golovins and the Tretyakovs. Thus, both the role of the Theodorites in the development of Russian statehood and the historical presence of the “Russian world” on the southwestern coast of the Crimean peninsula are undoubted.

It should be noted that it was during the period of the existence of the Theodorite state that the southern coast of Crimea experienced real economic and cultural prosperity. In fact, the reign of the Theodorite dynasty was comparable in its significance for Crimea to the Renaissance in European states. After the rule of the Khazars and long-term political unrest caused by internal strife in the Byzantine Empire, two centuries of the existence of the principality of Theodoro brought long-awaited stability to the southwestern coast of Crimea.

It was during the period of existence of the state of Theodoro, i.e. in the 13th – 14th centuries, there was a heyday of Orthodoxy and Orthodox statehood on the southwestern coast of Crimea. Theodoro was a kind of center of Orthodoxy in Crimea. Many Orthodox churches and monasteries operated here. After the conquest of the eastern part of Byzantium by the Seljuk Turks, monks from the famous Orthodox monasteries of mountainous Cappadocia found refuge on the territory of the Crimean principality.

Ani Armenians, residents of the city of Ani and its environs, which were subjected to a devastating attack by the Seljuk Turks, also migrated en masse to the territory of Crimea, including to the settlements that were part of the Principality of Theodoro. The Ani Armenians brought with them wonderful trade and craft traditions and opened parishes of the Armenian Apostolic Church in many cities and towns of both the Genoese and Theodorite parts of Crimea. Along with the Greeks, Alans and Goths, the Armenians became one of the main components of the Christian population of the peninsula, remaining so even after the final conquest of Crimea by the Ottoman Turks and their vassal, the Crimean Khanate.

Agriculture, the basis of the economy of the Theodorites, was distinguished by a high degree of development. Residents of southwestern Crimea have always been excellent gardeners, gardeners and winegrowers. Winemaking has become especially widespread in the principality, becoming its calling card. Archaeological finds in the fortresses and monasteries of the former Theodoro indicate the high development of winemaking, since almost every settlement necessarily had grape presses and wine storage facilities. As for crafts, Theodoro also provided himself with pottery, blacksmithing and weaving products.

The construction craft reached a high level of development in Theodoro, thanks to the mastery of which local craftsmen erected remarkable monuments of serfdom, monastic and economic architecture. It was the Theodorite builders who erected the fortifications, which for two centuries protected the principality from numerous external enemies who encroached on its sovereignty.

During its heyday, the Principality of Theodoro had a population of at least 150 thousand people. Almost all of them were Orthodox. Ethnically, Crimean Goths, Greeks and descendants of Alans predominated, but Armenians, Russians and representatives of other Christian peoples also lived on the territory of the principality. The Gothic dialect of the German language was widespread on the territory of the principality, which remained on the peninsula until the final dissolution of the Crimean Goths in other ethnic groups of Crimea.

It is noteworthy that Theodoro, despite its small size and small population, repeatedly fought back against superior enemy forces. Thus, neither the hordes of Nogai nor the army of Khan Edigei could take the small mountain principality. Nevertheless, the Horde managed to gain a foothold in some areas previously controlled by the Mangup princes.

The Christian principality on the southern coast of Crimea, which was a fragment of the Byzantine Empire and maintained connections with the rest of the Orthodox world, was a bone in the throat for both the Catholic Genoese, who also created a number of strongholds on the coast, and for the Crimean khans. However, it was not the Genoese or the khans who put an end to the history of this amazing state. Although armed clashes with the Genoese happened more than once, and the rulers of the Crimean Horde looked predatorily towards the prosperous mountain state. The peninsula also attracted interest from its southern overseas neighbor, which was gaining strength. Ottoman Turkey, having defeated and completely conquered the Byzantine Empire, now considered the former lands of Byzantium, including Crimea, as a territory of its potential expansion. The invasion of Ottoman troops on the Crimean peninsula contributed to the rapid establishment of vassalage of the Crimean Khanate in relation to Ottoman Turkey. By armed means, the Turks also managed to overcome the resistance of the prosperous Genoese trading posts on the Crimean coast. It is clear that a similar fate awaited the last Christian state of the peninsula - the Principality of Theodoro.

In 1475, Mangup was besieged by the army of thousands of Gedik Ahmed Pasha, the commander of Ottoman Turkey, who, naturally, was assisted by the vassals of Istanbul - the Crimean Tatars. Despite the multiple force superiority over the Theodorites, for five months the Ottomans could not take the fortified Mangup, although they concentrated numerous military forces around the mountain fortress - almost all the selected units that participated in the conquest of Crimea.

In addition to the residents and the princely squad, the city was also defended by a detachment of Moldavian soldiers. Let us recall that the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great was married to the Mangup princess Maria and had his own family interests in the Crimean principality. Three hundred Moldovans, who arrived together with Prince Alexander, who had recently taken the Mangup throne, became the “three hundred Spartans” of Crimea. The Theodorites and Moldovans managed to destroy the elite of the then Ottoman army - the Janissary corps. However, the forces were too unequal.

In the end, Mangup fell. Unable to defeat the small forces of its defenders in direct battle, the Turks starved out the city. Enraged by months of violent resistance from its inhabitants, the Ottomans destroyed half of its 15,000 population, and the rest - mostly women and children - were driven into slavery in Turkey. Prince Alexander died in captivity, the last ruler of Theodoro, who managed to recover for a very short time, but showed himself to be a great patriot and brave warrior. Other representatives of the ruling family also died there.

Having survived the much more powerful Constantinople and Trebizond, the small Crimean principality became the last bastion of the Byzantine Empire, resisting the enemy’s onslaught to the end. The memory of the feat of the inhabitants of Mangup, unfortunately, has practically not been preserved. Modern Russians, including residents of Crimea, are little aware of the tragic history of the small mountain principality and the brave and hardworking people who inhabited it.

For a long time after the fall of Theodoro, a Christian population lived in the territory that was once part of this principality. Greek, Armenian, Gothic cities and villages remained the breadbasket of the Crimean Khanate, since it was their inhabitants who continued the excellent traditions of gardening and viticulture, sowed grain, and were engaged in trade and crafts. When Catherine the Second decided to resettle the Christian population of Crimea - primarily Armenians and Greeks - to the Russian Empire, this became a severe blow to the economy of the Crimean Khanate and ultimately contributed to its destruction no less than the direct military actions of Russian troops. The descendants of Crimean Christians, including the inhabitants of the Principality of Theodoro, gave rise to two remarkable ethnic groups of Russia and New Russia - the Don Armenians and the Azov Greeks. Each of these peoples has made and continues to make a worthy contribution to Russian history.

When the current champions of Ukrainian “independence” talk about the indigenous and non-indigenous peoples of the peninsula, one cannot help but remind them of the tragic history of the end of the last Orthodox principality on the territory of Crimea, to remind them by what methods the Crimean land was liberated from its real indigenous inhabitants, who defended their home to the last and your faith.

The Principality of Theodoro was formed at the end of the 12th century. At the beginning of the 13th century. it became a vassal of the Trebizond (Greek) Komnenos Empire and paid it an annual tribute. The principality was ruled by princes from the Trebizond family of Comneni, who came from Armenia. At first, their power extended to the mountainous agricultural region of Crimea, then extended to the sea. The capital of the principality was the city of Feodoro in the southwestern part of Crimea, it was also known as Mangup. The city has been mentioned in Greek sources since the 8th century. When the Mongol-Tatars appeared in the Crimea in the 13th century, the rulers of Theodoro managed to establish peaceful relations with them and retain their possessions. The economy of the principality gradually developed, agriculture, crafts, and trade flourished. From the second half of the 14th century. In the city of Theodoro, large construction began: fortifications of the upper castle, a princely palace, and churches were erected. The heyday of the principality occurred during the reign of Alexei (1420-1456). During his reign, the principality numbered 200 thousand inhabitants - a figure very significant for the Crimea of ​​that time. During the reign of Alexei, fortresses and ports were built, new cities and towns were founded and old ones were destroyed. In 1427, the capital's fortress was rebuilt again. Alexei not only maintained good relations with the Crimean Khanate, but also intervened in the struggle of the khans for the throne, supporting one or another contender. The Tatar rulers of Crimea helped trade, also hoping to profit from the competition between the Genoese and the merchants of Theodoro. In turn, Alexey decided to take advantage of the support of the Crimean khans and get his own port on the Crimean coast. When at the end of the 14th century. The Genoese captured almost the entire southern coast of Crimea, they monopolized Black Sea trade and cut off the Principality of Theodoro from the sea. In an effort to reach the coast, ruler Theodoro captured a small strip of coast in the area of ​​Inkerman, which arose later, and founded the port of Kalamita, and in order to protect it from the Genoese and Tatars, he built a fortress there in 1427. Theodoro's troops, leaving the Kalamitsky fortress, captured Cembalo in 1433, but could not hold it - the following year they were driven out of there by the Genoese. Kalamita became a dangerous rival of Chembalo, Sudak and then Kafa itself in maritime trade. Many ships from Byzantium and the Mediterranean countries were sent to Kalamita. The Genoese merchants sought to get rid of competition, and in 1434 an army sent from Kafa burned Calamita. However, the Theodorites quickly rebuilt it. This port remained the sea gate of the principality until the end of its existence. 15. Cave cities of Crimea

In medieval Taurica, on the high plateaus of the table mountains, a whole network of cities appeared, surrounded by impregnable rocks and formidable defensive walls with battle towers. Most often in historical literature these cities are referred to as “cave cities”. Having emerged in the early Middle Ages, these cities are of great scientific interest. The vast majority of them are concentrated in the southwestern region of the Inner, or Second, ridge of the Crimean Mountains, separating the mountainous part of the peninsula from the foothills and steppe. This ridge has gentle northwestern slopes falling into a longitudinal valley, and it faces steep rocky cliffs to the southeast. News of some “cave cities” appeared in sources more than a millennium ago. Their descriptions have been preserved, compiled by both famous scientists and all kinds of travelers and lovers of antiquities. The term “cave cities” appears in the 19th century, but already at that time it was called into question by scientific researchers. The study of these cities showed that the caves were only auxiliary buildings that served mainly for economic and defensive purposes. There were also churches among them. There are a number of hypotheses and points of view about the time and circumstances of the origin of “cave cities”. Among them, two main ones stand out. Some researchers see in these monuments the result of the active foreign policy of the Byzantine Empire, which sought to strengthen the borders of its territory with fortresses and fortified lines. Byzantium actually carried out such events in a number of subject territories. Supporters of this view refer to data from literary and epigraphic (inscriptions on stones) sources, as well as to the appearance of the material culture of early medieval Chersonesos, which was an outpost of Byzantine influence in Crimea. Its defense was organized by creating a line of fortifications in the form of “cave cities” in the mountainous southwestern Crimea. The time of this construction is determined by the end of the 5th or the first half of the 6th century. Unfortunately, supporters of this view have to use for proof only a few excerpts from the works of Byzantine authors that have come down to us. At the court of Emperor Justinian I (527 - 665), the historian and military leader Procopius of Caesarea wrote a treatise “On Buildings”. Speaking about the activities carried out in Crimea, Procopius reports the existence there of a certain country of Dori, inhabited by Goths, farmers, former military allies of Byzantium. To protect them from enemy attacks, the emperor ordered the construction of “long walls.” Unfortunately, from the text of the passage it is impossible to accurately determine the area in which the country of Dori was located. There has been controversy on this issue for a long time. Researchers who connect “cave cities” with the activity of the Byzantines see it in the southwestern part of the Crimean Mountains in the space between the Outer and Main ridges. Indeed, if you look at the map, to some extent they resemble a chain of fortifications that closed mountain passes. But this hypothesis has a number of vulnerabilities. Not all “cave cities” were fortresses. Only Mangup, Eski-Kermen and Chufut-Kale turned out to be real fortresses with significant garrisons capable of protecting mountain valleys. The rest either had no fortifications at all, or, due to their size, could only be shelters and castles that provided shelter for the inhabitants of the area. Researchers who put forward a different point of view argue that “cave cities” are cities, villages, castles and monasteries that arose as a result of the development of feudal relations among the Crimean mountain population. This process took place over the course of centuries and was completed by the 10th-12th centuries. For almost half a millennium, centers of craft and trade, residences of the feudal administration, monastic monasteries, and settlements of peaceful farmers were formed. Some researchers locate the country of Dori on the southern coast of Crimea from Sudak to Foros. Back in the 30s of the XIX century. Academician Koeppen saw the ruins of structures on the passes of the Main Ridge, which he identified with the “long walls” of the Byzantines. The same point of view is defended in their articles by O. I. Dombrovsky, E. I. Solomonik and a number of other researchers.

16. Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde Crimean ulus - ulus of the Golden Horde, which existed in the first half of the 13th-15th centuries on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. The Tatars occupied the steppe Crimea in 1239, simultaneously with Batyyan’s campaigns, the southern Russian lands, and subjugated the remnants of the living Tampolovites. The Tatars were divided into tribes, tribes and clans. The tribes were headed by 6 senior feudal families - “beys, beks” (Shirins, Baryns, Argyns, Yashlovs, Mansurs and Sajeuts), who each owned huge tracts of land and constituted the senior link of the feudal ladder. Their vassals were the heads of tribes and the heads of individual clans. The ordinary Tatar population, exploited by the feudal lords, came to Crimea in a purely nomadic pastoral system. Only a small amount of barley was sown to feed the horses that the Tatars needed to go after captives. At first, Crimea constituted a special ulus of the Golden Horde; for the first time he temporarily separated from it under Khan Nogai. Re-annexed to the Golden Horde after the death of Nogai (circa 1290), Crimea in the 14th century was usually ruled by khan's governors, whose position gradually began to acquire a hereditary character; the capital was the city of Solkhat (present-day Old Crimea). The final fall of Crimea from the Golden Horde occurred in the 15th century.

Which controlled the political situation and trade routes here for almost 2000 years, slowly faded away. And another center of Greek culture on the peninsula was gaining strength.

The Mangup plateau has been inhabited since ancient times. Centuries passed. One generation gave way to another, waves of nomads rolled in and out. Some of them remained in Crimea, mixing with the local population. By the beginning of the 15th century, the Mangup princes were already subordinate to vast lands from Inkerman in the west to Mount Demerdzhi in the east. It was here that the interests of the Mangup princes and. The owners of Theodoro believed that the Genoese had illegally seized the part of the South Bank that belonged to them. This led to constant conflicts.

In those turbulent times, the rulers of Theodoro took special care to strengthen their capital. The Mangup plateau was protected on three sides by rocky cliffs up to 40 m deep. Theodorites grew wheat and barley, various fruits and vegetables. Flocks of sheep grazed on mountain pastures. They also raised cattle. The economic rise of the principality in the 15th century allowed the export of handicrafts and products outside the Crimea. But all the harbors were in the hands of the Genoese; they needed their own access to the sea and a good trading port.

A suitable location was found - at the eastern end of Sevastopol Bay, where the Chernaya River flows into the sea. To ensure its safety, the fortifications of ancient Kalamita were rebuilt in 1427. A suburb stretches around the fortress. Its inhabitants fished, grew vegetables and fruits, engaged in crafts, and hunted. But the main purpose of Kalamita is to conduct intermediary trade. The port was also used by the Tatar khans, who sold war booty through it. The increased importance of Calamita could not help but worry the Genoese.

The authorities of Kafa saw in the existence of Kalamita a threat to their monopoly in Crimean trade and tried to capture the fortress. In response, the Theodorites decided to take away Chembalo. In 1433-1434, a particularly fierce struggle unfolded. The Greek population of Chembalo, dissatisfied with foreign power, also took part in it. The misfortunes of the inhabitants were aggravated by a severe drought, as well as a plague epidemic, which claimed many lives. A popular uprising against the Genoese began. He was supported by both the Crimean Khan Hadji-Girey and the Mangup prince Alexei. The Italians were expelled from Cembalo, and its inhabitants came under the protection of the ruler Theodoro.

The authorities of Kafa tried to recapture Chembalo, but to no avail. I had to turn to Genoa for help. A military expedition was equipped: 21 ships with 6 thousand soldiers under the command of Admiral Carlo Lomellino. Part of the army was sent to prevent the approach of the Tatar detachment of Hadji-Girey. The rest of Lomellino's forces began the assault. The Genoese carried out a real massacre, killing all the defenders. After the capture of Cembalo, Lomellino's army captured Calamita. The port facilities of the Theodorite harbor were burned.

Having passed along the southern coast, the Genoese reached Kafa. Having increased the number of the detachment to 8 thousand, the detachment moved to Solkhat to punish the Crimean Khan. Not far from the village, he was suddenly attacked by Hadji-Girey with 5,000 horsemen. The Genoese suffered a crushing defeat. The struggle with the Genoese continued for a long time in order to return Chembalo. The confrontation came to an end when the Ottoman Turks appeared on the Crimean coast, becoming the main military force in the Black Sea.

By 1475, Ottoman Türkiye captured Genoese fortresses on the Crimean coast and the Principality of Theodoro in Southwestern Crimea; The Crimean Khanate becomes a vassal of Turkey, coastal cities turn into the largest slave trading centers in Europe.