Finishing
Paths: examples. Paths in Russian

Paths: examples. Paths in Russian

Phraseologisms and catch words

“a sea of tears”, “fast as lightning”, “lightning fast”, “numerous like sand on the seashore”, “we haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”, “[a drunken] sea is knee-deep... [and lu- the lady is head over heels]”, “whoever remembers the old things is out of sight! And whoever forgets, both will!”

Ancient examples

Give me a fulcrum and I will move the Earth. Dos moipu sto, kai tan gan kinas Archimedes

Hyperbolic metaphors in the Gospel

« Why do you look at the straw in your brother's eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye?» ( Matthew 7:1-3). In this figurative picture, a critical person proposes to take the straw out of the “eye” of his neighbor. The critic wants to say that his neighbor does not see clearly and therefore is not able to judge sensibly, while the critic himself is prevented from judging sensibly by a whole log.

On another occasion Jesus condemned Pharisees for what they " blind guides, straining out a mosquito and swallowing a camel» ( Matthew 23:24). Moreover, Jesus knew that the Pharisees strained wine through cloth. These upholders of the rules did this so as not to accidentally swallow a mosquito and become ceremonially unclean. At the same time, they, figuratively speaking, swallowed the camel people, who were also considered unclean ( Lev.11:4, 21-24).

“Faith the size of a [tiny] mustard seed” that could move a mountain is a way of emphasizing that even a little faith can do a lot ( Matthew 17:20). A camel tries to pass through the eye of a needle - also hyperbole Jesus Christ, which clearly shows how difficult it is for a rich man to lead materialistic lifestyle, try to serve God ( Matthew 19:24).

Classics of Marxism

What a lump, huh? What a seasoned little man!

- V. I. Lenin. Lev Tolstoy like a mirror of the Russian revolution

Teaching Marx omnipotent because it is true.

- V. I. Lenin. Three sources and three components Marxism

Prose

Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich

A million Cossack caps suddenly poured out onto the square. ...

...for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.

- N. Gogol. Taras Bulba

And at that very moment, along the streets, couriers, couriers, couriers... can you imagine, thirty-five thousand couriers alone!

- N. Gogol. Auditor

Poems, songs

And even if I were a black man of advanced years,
and then without despondency and laziness,
I would learn Russian just because
what did he say to them? Lenin.

- Vladimir Mayakovsky. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

I would be a wolf
gnawed it out
bureaucracy.
To the mandates
there is no respect.

- Vladimir Mayakovsky. Poems about the Soviet passport

Friends, I will go out to meet a bear without fear,
If I am with a friend, and the bear is without a friend.

Song from the film “In Secret to the Whole World.” Moose: V. Shainsky, words M. Tanich

About our meeting - what can I say,
I was waiting for her, as they wait natural Disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of harmful consequences! (2 times)
…
What I asked for, I did instantly,
To me each hour I wanted to do wedding night,
Because of you I jumped in front of a train,
But, thank God, it was not entirely successful... (2 times)

...And if you had waited for me that year,
When I was sent to dacha , -
I would steal everything for you firmament
And two Kremlin stars in addition! (2 times)

And I swear - I will be the last bastard! -
Don't lie, don't drink - and I will forgive the betrayal!
And I'll give it to you Grand Theatre
AND Small sports arena ! (2 times)

But now I’m not ready for the meeting -
I'm afraid of you, I'm afraid of intimate nights,
Like residents of Japanese cities
Afraid of repetition Hiroshima . (2 times)

- Vladimir Vysotsky

Well, judge for yourself: on the wire in the USA
All the hippies with hair have shaved their hair,
They tore off his sweater, chewed off his watch in an instant,
And they snatched the slabs right from the runway.

- Vladimir Vysotsky

For four years we have been preparing our escape,
We saved three tons of grub...

Vladimir Vysotsky

The task itself already has a hint, for example: name the trope in sentence No. And there are only 4 main tropes: metaphor -extended metaphor; epithet, comparison, personification(“animate metaphor”), as well as hyperbole, litotes, allegory, metonymy, synecdoche. Other means that are proposed in KIM (in the task) are either stylistic, or syntactic devices, or lexical means.

So, we divide all techniques into four groups: 1. Trails; 2. Stylistic means.3. Syntactic means (techniques)4. Vocabulary - lexical means. 5. Phonetic capabilities. Sound aids.

Unified State Exam. Task B8. Visual and expressive means of language(these are tropes, or artistic techniques)

Fine-expressive means of language are the techniques by which the visual appearance of a phenomenon, designed for sensory-emotional perception, is reproduced in the imagination.

TRAILS (Fine and expressive means of language)

Paths (Greek tropos - turnover) - the use of the word not in a literal, but in a figurative, allegorical sense.

The most important types of trails:

Comparison - comparison of phenomena and concepts with other phenomena. The fragile ice lies on the icy river like melting sugar. Joy crawls like a snail

Epithet (Greek epitheton - application) - artistic definition. Marmalade mood A. Chekhov. The golden grove dissuaded Birch with a cheerful language. (S. Yesenin):

A) epithets expressed by nouns (Mother Volga, Father Don, wind-tramp);

B) epithets expressed by adjectives(bright eyes, sable eyebrows, green wine, damp earth);

B) epithets expressed by adverbs:

You love sadly and difficultly.

And a woman’s heart - jokingly A.S. Pushkin

A constant epithet is a well-established definition of heroes, images in folklore: burning tears, a red sun, a good fellow, a little path, a fierce enemy

Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a hidden comparison based on the hidden likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast (the forest is noisy, the garden is empty, the weather is stormy):

A) personification – a figure of speech in which words denoting the properties and signs of phenomena of the animate world are used in descriptions of outwardly similar phenomena of the inanimate world. In other words, personification is the attribution of properties of living beings to inanimate objects:

Over darkened Petrograd

November breathed the autumn chill A.S. Pushkin

The Terek howls, wild and angry. M.Yu. Lermontov;

Silent sadness will be consoled... A.S. Pushkin

b ) expanded metaphor:

But the church is on a steep hill

Visible between the clouds to this day,

And they stand at her gate

Black granites are on guard,

They are covered with snow cloaks, And on their chests, instead of armor, eternal ice burns. M. Lermontov

Metaphorical epithet is a combination of the functions of epithet and metaphor: foggy youth, golden dreams, gray morning, iron will, silk eyelashes, heart of stone, iron will (these are established phrases, reminiscent of phraseological units in the form adj + noun)

Symbol (Greek symbolon - conventional sign) is an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon:

Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear! A.S. Pushkin

Here the sun is a symbol of reason, happiness and knowledge.

An example of an expanded symbol is M. Lermontov’s poem “Sail”. A symbol is a deeper concept than a metaphor.

Allegory - type of allegory; an abstract idea, a concept embodied in a concrete image. Or an expanded simile, the components of which form a system of allusions, i.e. designation of specific phenomena through the signs of these phenomena. Thus, the goddess of justice Themis was depicted with scales and blindfolded. Human sins were measured with scales; blindfolded eyes allegorically pointed to the impartiality and objectivity of the goddess-judge. This is where expressions such as scales of justice and blind justice came from. Allegory is often used in fables and fairy tales, where animals, objects, and natural phenomena act as carriers of properties.

Metonymy (Greek metonomadzo - to rename).

This is a technique in which words are replaced not on the basis of similarity (as in metaphor), but on the basis of different types of connections between phenomena. This connection can be of several types:

A) connection of the vessel with its contents (drank two glasses, ate a bowl of soup, ate seven glasses);

B) the connection between the material and the thing made from it (amber on the Tsaregrad pipes, porcelain and bronze on the table; there is gold);

C) the connection of actions and circumstances with the place where they took place (violent Rome rejoices; this is his Waterloo);

D) the connection of things with their property, purpose or character (crafty dagger, bloody lesson);

E) the connection of general concepts with specific ones (the city takes courage, bloody villainy);

E) the connection between mental phenomena and the characteristic forms of their manifestation. (Compare: to be sad, to yearn - to sigh; to expose oneself to danger because of one’s stupidity - to sharpen an ax on oneself, to chop off a branch under oneself).

Synecdoche (a special type of metonymy) - (Greek synecdoche - understanding through something) - replacement of words based on quantitative relationships, for example, the name of a greater in the meaning of a smaller, a whole in the meaning of a part and vice versa. “All the flags will come to visit us.” “We keep looking at Napoleons.” - A.S. Pushkin

“Everything sleeps - man, beast, and bird” - N. Gogol. “Swede, Russian – stabs, chops, cuts - A.S. Pushkin”

Gradation gradualism (Strengthening or weakening) – usually involves the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing or decreasing strength (“I spoke, convinced, demanded, ordered.”)

Oxymoron

Paraphrase(s)- signifying trope(king of beasts - lion; the owner of the taiga is the tiger, Northern Palmyra, Northern Venice - all St. Petersburg, the golden-domed capital - Moscow, the mother of all Russian cities - Kiev)

2. Stylistic figures.

Stylistic figures are expressions that are constant in meaning and design and have certain artistic capabilities.

anaphora, or unity of command:

I swear by the first day of creation,

I swear on his last day,

I swear by the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph

M.Yu. Lermontov;

Epiphora , or ending, is extremely rare in Russian verse, typical of Eastern poetry:

I have not found a confidante except my soul,

I haven’t found anything more selfless than my own heart...

And I haven’t found heart captivity anywhere more terrible.

pleonasm – repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect:

My friend, my friend,

I am very, very sick.

gradation . This technique consists in the fact that it is not the same word that is repeated, but semantically close words, that is, words that are close in meaning, which, gradually reinforcing each other, create one image, usually expressing a sequentially increasing or decreasing feeling, thought, and they also recreate an event or action: In the old days they loved to eat well, they loved to drink even better, and even better they loved to have fun (N.V. Gogol);

My comrades burned in tanks

To ashes, to ashes, to the ground. (Slutsky) Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts - A.S. Pushkin"

Oxymoron (oxymoron) - a turn of phrase in which a new expressive meaning arises as a result of combinations of words that are opposite in meaning (good-natured ferocity, hot snow, wretched luxury, living corpse, Dead souls).

Irony (Greek eironeia - pretense) - can take the form of any other trope. This is a turn of phrase in which words characterizing a phenomenon are used in order to achieve a comic effect in the opposite meaning (philosopher at eighteen years old, A.S. Pushkin. Where, smart one, are you wandering from? I. Krylov.)

hyperbola – artistic exaggeration (a feast for the whole world; a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper, N.V. Gogol);

litotes - a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation (a boy the size of a finger; a man the size of a fingernail, Nekrasov, he does not shine with intelligence).

alogism

3. Lexical means. Visual possibilities of vocabulary.

A) lexical repetitions- deliberate repetition of a word to draw the reader’s attention (Take care of your penny, a penny won’t give you away, you can ruin everything in the world with a penny. N.V. Gogol);

pleonasm - repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect:

My friend, my friend,

I am very, very sick.

I don’t know where this pain came from... S. Yesenin.

Phraseologisms (winged words) – stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure. Pretentious, hastily, without fluff or feather, Knight without fear and reproach

synonyms - words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms are close in context.

antithesis – comparison of phenomena that are opposite in meaning and meaning. (Compare: the first day of creation is the last day, M.Yu. Lermontov);

Contextual antonyms are opposite in context. Out of context, the meaning changes (Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire - A. Pushkin)

Evaluative vocabulary– emotionally charged words containing evaluation: simpleton, smartass, clever, vocal.

Homonyms words that sound the same but have different meanings passage in birdsong, trade in passage

Paronyms – words similar in sound, but different in meaning: heroic - heroic, effective - valid

Vernacular (colloquial vocabulary, or reduced, or colloquial) - words of colloquial use, distinguished by some rudeness: blockhead, fidgety, wobble.

Dialectisms - words that exist in a certain area. Draniki, mshars, Buryaki.

Borrowed words are words transferred from other languages. PR, parliament, consensus, millennium.

Book vocabulary - words that are characteristic of written speech and have a special stylistic connotation. Immortality, incentive, prevail

Jargonisms – words that are outside the literary norm./ Argo / - Head - watermelon, globe, pumpkin...

Neologisms – new words that arise to denote new concepts. Sitting, shopping, music video director, marketing.

Professionalisms (special vocabulary)- words used by people of the same profession. Galley.

Terms – special concepts in science, technology...Optics, catarrh.

Outdated words (archaisms)- words displaced from the modern language by others denoting the same concepts. Thrifty - caring, joy - joy, youth - young man, eye - eye, neck

Expressive spoken vocabulary- emotionally charged words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary. Dirty, loud, bearded.

Palindrome - a word, phrase, line that is read equally from left to right and from right to left (tavern)

4. Syntactic means

pass – a form of laconic, “slogan” style. Its strength lies in brevity, and brevity depends on how skillfully the words with the most meaningful meaning and picture quality are selected and left in the phrase. (We sat down - in the ashes! Hail - in the dust! In swords - sickles and plows. V.A. Zhukovsky);

For incomplete sentences see blank(often in dialogue, slogan)

Default, or ellipsis- a form that reproduces the speech of a very excited person. The default is close to omission:

Father... Mazepa... execution - with a prayer

Here, in this castle, is my mother... /The figure allows the listener to guess for himself what will be discussed/.

rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal– to enhance the expressiveness of speech, do not require a response:

Where are you galloping, proud horse?

And where will you put your hooves? A.S. Pushkin

Do you know Ukrainian night? Oh, you don’t know Ukrainian night! N.V.Gogol.

A number of homogeneous members -these are groups of homogeneous members that complicate the structure of a sentence. Any members of a sentence can be homogeneous, with the help of which the meaning of the sentence is more meaningfully and fully conveyed

asyndeton – a list of phenomena, actions, events when the necessary conjunctions are deliberately omitted. The effect of rapidity of changing images, feelings, emotional intensity, excitement:

Women flash past the booths,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Pharmacies, shops, fashion.

Balconies, lions on the gates,

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

A.S. Pushkin

Multi-Union (polysyndeton) - a special introduction of additional conjunctions to give speech smoothness, majesty, and sometimes to emphasize an epically calm, narrative manner:

And the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger.

The years are kind to the winner...

A.S. Pushkin

Parcellation – deliberate violation of sentence boundaries

It was a Volga. Ashy. With a Moscow number. (Usually, when parcelling, 2 sentences are indicated. To correctly determine this technique, you need to re-read the previous sentence and the subsequent one).

Incomplete sentences– in which a member of the sentence is missing that could be restored from the context. There is another turn ahead, and another one behind it.

Question-answer form of presentation– A form of presentation in which questions and answers to the question alternate.

Syntactic parallelism– a figurative comparison of two similar phenomena, compositionally expressed in the form of parallel phrases:

Black raven in the gentle twilight,

Black velvet on dark shoulders

A.Blok;

The graves are overgrown with grass -

The pain grows old.

M. Sholokhov.

Negative parallelism: emphasize the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:

It’s not the wind that bends the branch,

It’s not the oak tree rustling, -

My heart is groaning

Like an autumn leaf trembling.

S.Stromilov

Parallelism serves to compare natural phenomena with human mood.

Enough, white birch, raging over the water,

Come on, stupid girl, play pranks on me - a similar syntactic construction.

alogism - association as homogeneous members of different species with the aim of creating a comic effect. (As soon as I passed the exams, I immediately went with my mother, furniture and brother... to the dacha, A.P. Chekhov);

inversion – violation of standard word order, reverse: The sail turns white lonely

She is slim, her movements

That swan of desert waters

Reminds me of a smooth ride

That is a doe's quick striving. A.S. Pushkin.

Italics – highlighted word, key

Ellipsis - omission of any member of the sentence. Men - for axes. We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. V. Zhukovsky

5. Sound means of expression. Phonetic means (Rare)

Alliteration - a technique of enhancing imagery by repeating consonant sounds. Like a winged lily, / Hesitating, Lala-Ruk enters

Assonance - a technique of enhancing imagery by repeating vowel sounds. The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I’m sick... A. Pushkin

Sound recording - a technique for enhancing the visual quality of the text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture. Nightingale: “Then it suddenly scattered in small shots throughout the grove” I. Krylov

Onomatopoeia- imitation of the sounds of living and inanimate nature using the sounds of language. When the mazurka thunder roared...A. Pushkin

Some techniques may be in stylistics and tropes, or in syntax and stylistics - you need to be careful and distinguish: figurative meaning (figurative) is tropes; if the structure of the sentence itself, its construction is syntax. And if you produce an effect on the reader, highlighting the peculiarity of the phrase as the key to the problem of the text - this is stylistics.

March 22, 2015

Every day we come across a lot of means of artistic expression; we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All of these are tropes, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of every person.

What are means of artistic expression?

The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means "turn of speech." They are used to give figurative speech; with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless in works of art, are no less important than lexical means.

Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Video on the topic

Tropes in Russian (examples)

Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: At midnight on New Year's Eve the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying at the Faculty of International Relations.
Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are less often used in the speech of modern people, but this does not diminish their importance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrasis is used to avoid repetition in a literary text or speech.

Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, and omissions in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.

The incentive sentence ends with a rhetorical exclamation. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in Pushkin (“To Chaadaev,” “To the Sea”), in Lermontov (“The Death of a Poet”), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they make for an intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.

Figures of speech

The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all tropes with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanities faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.

Lexical means and examples
Synonyms	We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life.
Antonyms	My life is nothing but black and white stripes.
Phraseologisms	Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise they will give you a pig in a poke.
Archaisms	Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently.
Historicisms	Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today.
Dialectisms	There were roes (snakes) in this area.
Stylistic tropes (examples)
Metaphor	You have nerves of iron, my friend.
Personification	The foliage sways and dances with the wind.
	The red sun sets below the horizon.
Metonymy	I've already eaten three plates.
Synecdoche	The consumer always chooses quality products.
Periphrase	Let's go to the zoo to see the king of beasts (about the lion).
Allegory	You are a real ass (about stupidity).
Hyperbola	I've been waiting for you for three hours already!
	Is this a man? A little guy, and that's all!
Syntactic figures (examples)
	There are so many people with whom I can be sad, There are so few people I can love.
	We'll go through the raspberries! Do you like raspberries? No? Tell Danil, Let's go through the raspberries.
Gradation	I think about you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray.
Pun	Because of you, I began to drown my sadness in wine.
Rhetorical figures (appeal, exclamation, question, silence)	When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh, what a wonderful day it is today! And you say that you know the material perfectly? You'll come home soon - look...
Multi-Union	I know algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, and biology very well.
Asyndeton	The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, and banana cookies.
Ellipsis	Not so (it was)!
Inversion	I would like to tell you one story.
Antithesis	You are everything and nothing to me.
Oxymoron	Living Dead.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.

What is expressiveness?

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid paths, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.

Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Tropes in Russian (examples)

Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: At midnight on New Year's Eve the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying at the Faculty of International Relations.
Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.

The incentive offer ends. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea", in Lermontov ("The Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.

Figures of speech

Table of all tropes with examples

Lexical means and examples
Synonyms	We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life.
Antonyms	My life is nothing but black and white stripes.
Phraseologisms	Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise they will give you a pig in a poke.
Archaisms	Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently.
Historicisms	Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today.
Dialectisms	There were roes (snakes) in this area.
Stylistic tropes (examples)
Metaphor	You have my friend.
Personification	The foliage sways and dances with the wind.
	The red sun sets below the horizon.
Metonymy	I've already eaten three plates.
Synecdoche	The consumer always chooses quality products.
Periphrase	Let's go to the zoo to see the king of beasts (about the lion).
Allegory	You are a real ass (about stupidity).
Hyperbola	I've been waiting for you for three hours already!
	Is this a man? A little guy, and that's all!
Syntactic figures (examples)
	There are so many people with whom I can be sad, There are so few people I can love.
	We'll go through the raspberries! Do you like raspberries? No? Tell Danil, Let's go through the raspberries.
Gradation	I think about you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray.
Pun	Because of you, I began to drown my sadness in wine.
Rhetorical figures (appeal, exclamation, question, silence)	When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh, what a wonderful day it is today! And you say that you know the material perfectly? You'll come home soon - look...
Multi-Union	I know algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, and biology very well.
Asyndeton	The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, and banana cookies.
Ellipsis	Not so (it was)!
Inversion	I would like to tell you one story.
Antithesis	You are everything and nothing to me.
Oxymoron	Living Dead.

The role of means of artistic expression

Task 25 asks you to find and identify means of linguistic expression in the text.

To successfully complete task 25 of the Unified State Exam in the Russian language, we recommend:

1. Read the assignment carefully. There are hints in the wording of the task.

2. Often the task says whether you need to find a lexical or syntactic device. Lexical means are synonyms, antonyms, etc. Syntactic means are associated with sentence members and word order. Phonetic devices are assonance, alliteration or onomatopoeia, and tropes are words or expressions used in a figurative sense.

3. If in a phrase one word is in italics, then in most cases this is an epithet. In case of parcellation and parallelism, the numbers of sentences in the task are written separated by “-”. Homogeneous members - through ",". Colloquial, colloquial, bookish, obsolete words are given in brackets.

4. Learn the theory. If you don’t know what a particular term means, you won’t be able to solve this task by elimination.

List of terms:

Anaphora(= unity of beginning) - repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of one or more sentences:

August - asters
August - stars
August - grapes
Grapes and rowan...
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Antithesis- comparison of the opposite:

I'm stupid and you're smart
Alive, but I'm dumbfounded.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Question-and-answer form of presentation- presentation in the form of a sequence: question-answer:

My phone rang.
- Who's talking?
- Elephant.
- Where?
- From a camel.
(K.I. Chukovsky)

Exclamatory sentence- a sentence expressing the expressiveness, emotionality, and evaluativeness of the speaker’s speech. An exclamation mark is placed in exclamatory sentences in writing. How many apples! Apples!

Hyperbola- exaggeration, for example: We haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!

Gradation- arrangement of homogeneous members in order of increasing intensity of a sign, action, state, quantity, etc., enhancing the effect of the enumeration:

In the corner there was a basket with fragrant, large, ripe apples filled with sweet juice.

Dialectism- a dialect word, the use of which is limited geographically, and therefore is not included in the layer of the general literary language. Examples: veksha (squirrel), beetroot (beets), zakut (shed), kochet (rooster), cats (bast shoes), novina (harsh canvas).

Inversion- changing the order of words in order to draw attention to a phrase or word:

On what seems to be a cut rope
I'm a little dancer.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

And in this bewildered indignation of the “pop star” her civic immaturity, her human “ lack of education».

Irony- the use of words and statements with the opposite meaning attached to them: How smart!(in meaning: stupid, fool).

Contextual antonyms, contextual synonyms- words that serve as antonyms or synonyms only in a given context, but are not such in other contexts.

The hut was not cold, but chilled to such an extent that it seemed to be even colder inside than outside.

Cold - chilled- are not antonyms, but in this sentence, due to the opposition, they are used as antonyms.

Lexical repetition- repetition of the word:

Wind, wind -
All over God's world!
(A. Blok)

Litotes- understatement: little guy, little boy .

Metaphor- transfer of meaning by similarity: golden autumn, gloomy sky, cold gaze .

August - bunches
grapes and rowan
rusty - August!
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Metonymy- transfer by contiguity: win gold, the audience applauded, stage Chekhov .

Name sentences- sentences with one main member - subject: Noon. The heat is terrible .

Incomplete sentences- sentences that are frequent in colloquial and artistic speech, in which one of the main members, clear from the context, is omitted.

She came to me yesterday (1). She came and said... (2) .

The second sentence has a missing subject she to avoid repetition and make the story more dynamic. But the subject is easy to reconstruct from the context.

Personification- endowing inanimate objects with human traits and qualities: The sky above him shook. The sky was frowning .

Parallelism(= use of parallel constructions) - similar syntactic design of neighboring sentences:

It’s not the wind that bends the branch,
It’s not the oak tree that makes noise.
Then my heart groans
Like an autumn leaf trembling.
(Russian folk song)

I like that you are not sick of me,
I like that I'm not sick with you.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Parcellation- dividing a phrase into parts, possibly into words, formed as independent incomplete sentences. Often used to create the effect of a dynamic unfolding of events or their drama

She turned away sharply. She went to the window. I started crying.

Periphrase- replacing a word with a descriptive expression: the capital of our Motherland, a city on the Neva.

Proverb- a figurative complete saying that has an edifying meaning. Typically, proverbs are characterized by a special rhythmic and intonation design; they may have poetic meter, sound repetitions, rhyme and other features, as well as parallelism of construction. Examples: There are no comrades according to taste and color. If you're afraid of wolves, don't go into the forest. Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.

Vernacular- words, combinations of words, forms of word formation and inflection that go beyond the literary norm and give speech features of simplicity, reduction, and rudeness. Widely used in fiction as expressive elements: just now, always, there, here, drunkard, dead meat, born, smiling, theirs, doesn’t interfere.

Opposition- comparison, juxtaposition of something in order to draw attention to the dissimilarity, opposition of characteristics, states, actions, etc. The opposition is at the core antitheses. Example (from the FIPI task bank):

When the army of the Swedish king Charles XII, who had kept the whole of Europe in check, was completely defeated near Poltava, it seemed to many that now nothing was impossible for Russian weapons, that miracle heroes will only whistle - and the Turks will immediately throw out the white flag.

Spoken words- stylistically colored words used in colloquial speech: train, disheveled, tedious . Many such words are expressively colored.

A rhetorical question- a statement aimed not at obtaining an answer, finding out information, but at expressing emotions, feelings, assessment, expression: When will this all end? Where do you get patience?

Rhetorical appeal often precedes a rhetorical question or exclamation:

It's boring to live in this world, gentlemen! (N.V. Gogol)

Dear companions who shared our overnight stay! (M. Tsvetaeva)

Rows of homogeneous members

Who knows what fame is!
At what price did he buy the right?
Opportunity or Grace
Over everything so wise and crafty
Joking, mysteriously silent
And call a leg a leg?..
(A. Akhmatova)

Comparison- comparison of an object, attribute, state, etc. with another, having a common feature or feature of similarity: shop windows are like mirrors, love flashed like lightning (= lightning fast, would stro).

Comparative turnover- an extended comparison, introduced by comparative conjunctions as, as if, as if, as if, like (simple), like.

Poems grow like stars and like roses,
How beautiful...
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Like the right and left hand,
Your soul is close to my soul.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Term- a word denoting the concept of any professional field of activity or science and therefore having limited use: epithet, periphrasis, anaphora, epiphora .

Citation- using someone else's text as a quotation. Examples (from the FIPI task database):

The poet said: " We all prop up the firmament a little" This is about the dignity of man, his place on earth, his responsibility for himself, for everyone and for everything.

And more true words: “ Each person is worth exactly what he actually created, minus his vanity».

Emotionally evaluative words: daughter, my little one, my sunshine, enemy.

Epithet- definition:

And he, rebellious, looking for storms,

It's like there's peace in the storm.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)

Epiphora- (general ending), repetition of a word or phrase at the end of neighboring sentences in order to attract special attention to them:

After all, the stars were larger
After all, the herbs smelled different,
Autumn herbs.
(A. Akhmatova. “Love conquers deceitfully”)

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